Preparing and Dispensing Prescriptions during the Civil War Era

16 Pages·2006·1.02 MB·English

Apothecary’s
Cabinet
No. 10, Fall 2006
News and Notes from the American Institute of the History of Pharmacy
Preparing and Dispensing Prescriptions
during the Civil War Era
by Guy R. Hasegawa*
.
INTEREST in the Civil War era seems own drugs—generally purchased intermediate forms that were used in
unending. For most students of raw materials from wholesalers or prescriptions. Dried, crushed bark,
American history, the period’s politi- importers. There was no effective for example, could be treated with
cal and military aspects take center regulation of drugs, so conscientious water to form an infusion or decoc-
stage, while the more mundane fac- pharmacists learned to discern ac- tion, or with alcohol to form a tinc-
ets of life are overlooked. How, for ceptable items from those that were ture. These forms could be concen-
example, was everyday pharmacy of poor quality, mislabeled, or adul- trated by the application of heat to
practiced? A thorough answer to this terated. The experienced pharmacist, form fluid extracts, which could be
question would occupy much more for example, could often tell potent further concentrated to form solid
space than is available here, so this from sub-potent vegetable drugs and extracts.
article goes no further than the ba- was on the lookout for substances
sics of dispensing simple oral medi- used surreptitiously to dilute expen-
The Written Prescription
cations in American pharmacies. sive items. Military personnel who
Although pharmacy has changed dispensed drugs—surgeons and hos- Civilian prescriptions were fre-
tremendously since the mid-1800s, pital stewards—generally received quently written on any handy piece
some of the challenges that pharma- their goods from supply officers of paper. Other than the date and
cists faced then still exist today. called medical purveyors but some- patient’s name, which often did not
times had to obtain items locally appear, and the physician’s signature
from wholesalers or pharmacies. or initials, the prescription typically
Drug Supplies
Raw drugs often required had four parts. First was the super-
Although some prescriptions grinding or conversion into standard scription, which consisted of the ab-
might call for just a single item
kept by pharmacists in ready-to-
dispense form, most required some The American Institute of the History of Pharmacy is a unique
manipulation of ingredients. A vital organization dedicated to the preservation of pharmacy’s heri-
preliminary to dispensing a proper
tage. The Apothecary’s Cabinet is a publication from AIHP that
prescription was making sure that
takes a popular look at the history of pharmacy in its many facets.
the ingredients were of appropriate
quality. Pharmacists—and physicians THIS PUBLICATION IS FUNDED IN PART BY THE AIHP PHARMACY EDUCATION FUND.
who prepared and dispensed their
No. 10 1
could read the signatura and often wrote that section of
the prescription in English.
The physician, if a purist, would write the ingredi-
ents in a predetermined order. First would be the basis,
or the most important therapeutic agent. Second would
be an adjuvant, a component that made the body more
susceptible to the actions of the basis or gave the basis
a specific direction. Third would be a corrective, which
was meant to lessen or remove undesirable properties
In trituration, the pestle was worked in a circular mo- of the basis or adjuvant. Fourth would be the excipient,
tion from the center of the mortar outward and then in a component that ensured the proper incorporation of
the opposite direction back toward the center (Coblentz, the other ingredients. Fifth would be the diluent, which
page 121). by increasing the preparation’s volume, allowed for its
safer or more convenient administration. Not all pre-
scriptions contained all five types of component, and
breviation Rx for the Latin word recipe, meaning “take
for practical purposes, the order in which the ingredi-
thou.” This was the beginning of instructions to the
ents were listed mattered little, because it had nothing
pharmacist. Second was the inscription, which listed
the ingredients and amounts for the entire batch that
was to be prepared—say, for a dozen pills. Third was
the subscription, or directions for combining and divid-
ing the preparation (e.g., “mix and divide into 12 pills”),
and fourth was the signatura, which indicated the di-
rections for use (e.g., “one pill four times a day”).
The inscription and subscription were typically
written in Latin, and numbers in the inscription were
indicated in lower case Roman numerals after the ab-
breviations for the units of weight or measure. For ex-
ample, “4 grains” was written as “gr. iv.” (This conven-
Bullock & Crenshaw of Philadelphia offered a cork
tion is not followed in the remainder of this article.)
press in their catalog for $.75 in 1857. (Courtesy AIHP
Latin was considered the universal language of science,
Kremers Reference Files.)
so a properly written prescription could theoretically be
understood by any competent pharmacist in Europe or to do with how they were actually mixed. Excipients
the United States. Moreover, Latin names for medicines and diluents, even if they were needed in the finished
were distinctive and similar, if not identical, through- formulation, were often omitted from the written pre-
out the “civilized world.” According to Joseph Reming- scription, and their choice was left to the judgment of
ton, it was “frequently necessary, and always advisable, the pharmacist.
to withhold from a patient the names and properties of
the medicinal agents administered,” and using Latin
Weights and Measures
terms usually accomplished this. Since the directions
for use would have to be communicated to the patient, The writing and preparation of prescriptions em-
prescribers were less concerned about whether patients ployed the apothecary system of weights and measures.
Apothecary’s Cabinet
• No. 10, Fall 2006 ISSN 1534-4509
Editor: Gregory J. Higby
Assistant Editor: Elaine Condouris Stroud
Publisher: American Institute of the History of Pharmacy, located at the University of Wisconsin School of Pharmacy,
777 Highland Ave., Madison, Wisconsin 53705-2222 Phone [phone], email [email protected]; www.aihp.org.
THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF THE HISTORY OF PHARMACY is incorporated under Wisconsin statute 180 as a non-profit orga-
nization devoted to advancing knowledge and understanding of the place of pharmacy in history. It publishes Pharmacy in History,
Apothecary’s Cabinet, occasional monographs, and pamphlets; it fosters humanistic teaching in pharmaceutical education; confers
awards for outstanding achievement in its field; sponsors historical meetings and exhibits; collects and preserves source materials; and
serves as a center for research and information.
PUBLICATION PRICES: Apothecary’s Cabinet is distributed free of charge to schools of pharmacy upon request. This and other pub-
lications of the AIHP may be obtained through membership ($50 per year for individuals, $100 for institutions); individual copies of
Apothecary’s Cabinet are $2.00.
2 Apothecary’s Cabinet
(The metric system existed but was weights.) Medical purveyors in the measure) (60 ℳ = 1 fʒ, 8 fʒ = 1 f℥,
not widely used at the time in the United States Army used a pound 16 f℥ = 1 O, 8 O = 1 Cong.). Although
United States.) Apothecary weight that was equivalent to 16 ℥ (7680 gr.) pharmacies sold marked glasses that
units included the Troy grain (gr.), and thus differed from the apothe- patients could use to measure their
scruple (℈), drachm (ʒ), ounce (℥), cary pound (5760 gr.) and the avoir- doses in apothecary volumes, physi-
and pound (℔) (20 gr. = 1 ℈, 3 ℈ = dupois pound (7000 gr.). cians frequently prescribed doses in
1 ʒ, 8 ʒ = 1 ℥, and 12 ℥ = 1 ℔). Al- A well-equipped pharmacy less formal units; a drop, teaspoon-
though some expensive apothecary might contain one or two  ne sta- ful, dessertspoonful, tablespoonful,
weight sets contained weights up to tionary balances encased in glass for wineglassful, and teacupful were very
2 ℔, the heaviest apothecary weight protection from dust and moisture. roughly equal to 1 ℳ, 1 fʒ, 2 fʒ, 4 fʒ,
in the sets used by most pharma- Hand-held balances, although gen- 2 f℥, and 4 f℥ (1 gill), respectively.
cists was 2 ʒ, and if that was insuf- erally less reliable, were commonly
Interpreting the Prescription
Upon receipt of a prescription,
the conscientious civilian pharmacist
Brass apothecary
made sure to regard the slip with ap-
weights, ranging from
parent seriousness and con dence
0.5 grain to 2 drachms
while in view of the patient. Any
(Coblentz, page 31).
doubts about the meaning or appro-
priateness of the prescription were
to be concealed until the pharmacist
could retreat behind the counter,
 cient for the prescription at hand, used when portability was a must,
since a quizzical look or a shake of
the pharmacist employed avoirdu- as was often the case for physicians
the head might raise a doubt in the
pois weights, which were also based who prepared their own medicines
patient’s mind about the competence
on the Troy grain (27.34 gr. = 1 and for military medical personnel
of the prescriber. If the writing could
drachm [dr.], 16 dr. = 1 ounce [oz.], on the move. Large, relatively crude
not be deciphered or if it seemed
and 16 oz. = 1 pound [lb.]). A phar- balances were used for weighing bulk
to indicate an erroneous order, the
macist wanting to weigh 1 ℥ (480 quantities.
physician was contacted, or the pre-
gr.), for example, would use a 1 oz. Apothecary volumes (mea-
scription was  lled in a manner that
avoirdupois weight (437.5 gr.) plus sures) were comparatively simple;
the pharmacist considered safe or
a 2 ℈ apothecary weight (40 gr.) to some are commonly used today.
correct.
arrive at an approximation (477.5 Pharmacists used graduates marked
“The reading of a prescription,”
gr.) of the desired weight. Avoirdu- in minims (ℳ),  uidrachms (fʒ), or
said Edward Parrish, “frequently re-
pois weight was also used for mea-  uidounces (f℥) and larger measuring
quires more skill and judgment than
suring bulk quantities. (The ounces devices for pints (O, for octarius, an
compounding it.” A pharmacist iden-
and pounds commonly used in the ancient Roman measure) and gallons
ti ed only as “Apothecary” wrote in
United States today are avoirdupois (Cong., for congius, another Roman
the American Medical Times about
the dif culties that he and his col-
leagues faced in interpreting written
prescriptions:
What doctor would willingly accept a promis-
sory note, illegibly written on the margin of a
newspaper, on a scrap of envelope, or on a dirty
blue tobacco wrapper? and yet each of these,
in medical hands, has played the important
part of prescription-bearing. . . . Prescriptions
often degenerate into mere arbitrary ciphers,
a series of crotchets and quavers [quarter and
eighth notes, respectively, in music notation],
Hand-held balance that leave to the imagination of the apothecary
an open scale from aq. font. [aqua fontana, or
(Parrish, page 42).
spring water] to aq. fort. [aqua fortis, or nitric
acid]. The quirks and squirms intended to char-
acterize drachms are embellished into ounces,
and those intended for ounces are curtailed to
drachms. . . . [I have] received prescriptions
so confusedly crowded on a shapeless bit of
paper, as to have suggested even to the mind
of the physician writing them, the necessity
10 3
for a verbal explanation through the patient to
the apothecary, of what he (the physician) had
written, and in other cases, what he omitted
to write for want of room.
When measuring a liquid,
the base of the graduate was
grasped with the thumb and in-
Preparing the Prescription
dex finger and held at eye level,
Medications prepared in drug- while the bottle stopper was
stores were delivered or handed di- grasped with the little finger.
rectly to patients. In military hospi- Holding the stopper kept it and
tals, written prescriptions were taken the counter clean and reminded
to the pharmacy, and the finished the pharmacist to close the
medicines, many of which required bottle immediately after use and
compounding, were sent to the ward return it to the shelf (Parrish,
for administration by hospital stew- page 808).
ards or nurses. In the field, it was
common for surgeons to order single
doses of medicines to be measured
and administered on the spot. Many
such doses, such as mercury pills,
were pre-made.
While the compounding of
some prescriptions required only the
accurate measurement and simple
mixing of ingredients, others called
on the pharmacist to employ a good pharmaceutically elegant prepara- and permanent work facility.
deal of experience, knowledge, skill, tion, in many cases without having
and art. Diluents and excipients, for worked before with the combination
Oral Liquids
example, had to be chosen so that of ingredients and quantities speci-
they would not react in an undesir- fied in the prescription. The preparation of oral liquids
able way with the prescribed drug. A Other than measuring devices, might require only the measuring of
pharmacist was expected to produce mortars and pestles were perhaps a pre-made tincture or the simple
a therapeutically acceptable and the most versatile and commonly mixture of fluid ingredients. On the
used pharmacy implements. Large other hand, it might require the dis-
metal mortars and pestles, for in- solving of a solid, and if the solvent
stance, were employed for contu- was not specified, the pharmacist
sion, the pounding and beating of had to select one that was compat-
chopped, dried vegetable drugs into ible and palatable. Solids that were
finer particles; this hard and tedious not easily soluble might have to be
work was usually assigned to an ap- ground in a mortar to a fine powder
prentice. Smaller Wedgwood or por- to increase their surface area. The
celain models were used to reduce solvent was often added directly to
substances into powders (a process the mortar while the pestle was used
called trituration), mix powders, di- to stir. Insoluble solids necessitated
lute powders in fluid, and prepare the preparation of a suspension or
pill masses and ointments. A variety emulsion.
of spatulas was kept on hand for use
with mortars and pestles, removing
solid drugs from bottles, weighing,
and other applications. Many physi-
cians and military pharmacists per-
“A prescription which illustrates the formed only simple pharmaceutical
evils of a flourishing style. . . . Whilst operations, and they might have
it was not difficult of interpretation no implement more complex than
to those familiar with the physician’s a pill machine (described below). Brass and wood pill machines were
method, it proved to be a puzzle to Processes such as distillation and advertised by Bullock & Crenshaw in
the inexperienced.” (Remington, page evaporation required additional ap- their 1857 catalog. (Courtesy AIHP
921). paratus and a relatively spacious Kremers Files.)
4 Apothecary’s Cabinet
Liquids were dispensed in
corked glass vials or bottles. To stop-
per a vial or bottle, a cork was soaked
in water for a few minutes, squeezed
in a cork press, and pushed into the
neck. The cork was sometimes cov-
ered with paper, tin foil, or kid leath-
er, which was secured with string
tied around the vial or bottle neck.
Not only did this procedure add a
touch of elegance, it served at a sort
of tamper-proof seal. In tying, said
Remington, “A knot with short ends
. . . is less likely to be interfered with
by a messenger, on account of diffi-
Covering the cork and tying a knot on a vial (Mohr, Redwood, Procter, page
culty of retying it.” A label was pasted
430).
to the vial or tied to the vial’s neck.
Tying was preferred in the military,
because used bottles were collected,
washed, and reissued, and pasted la-
challenging to compound properly. at every scale mark. If many pills were
bels could be hard to remove. Labels
Since prescriptions for pills might to be made, the pharmacist could em-
ideally contained the patient’s name
not specify the excipients or dilu- ploy a pill machine, which consisted
and directions for use. Although the
ents, the pharmacist had to select of a flat wooden base, into which was
constituents of the prescription were
constituents to make a pill mass of set a series of parallel metal grooves
not indicated on civilian labels, they
appropriate moistness, hardness, that were semicircular in cross sec-
were included on military labels if
and cohesion. Furthermore, the tion, and a separate wooden slat with
the medication was to be given by a
order and manner in which the in- matching grooves. The pill cylinder
caregiver.
gredients were mixed could be vital, was placed on the base at the edge
and knowledge of these factors was of and perpendicular to the grooves,
Oral Solids often acquired only by experience. the slat was placed so that its grooves
It was common to dispense oral Common excipients included honey, matched those of the platform, and
solids as powders, with each dose in- syrup, alcohol, and bread crumbs. when the pharmacist slid the grooves
dividually packaged in a folded pa- Pill ingredients were usually together, the pill cylinder was cut into
per; compressed tablets and capsules mixed with a mortar and pestle or equal parts that fell into a trough at
were uncommon. The ingredients for with a spatula on the surface of a pill the end of the base. “In the U.S. Army
the entire prescribed batch of pow- tile. The tile, typically made of por- laboratories,” said Parrish, “immense
der were combined, and the mixture celain, often had a ruler-like scale numbers of pills are made with these
was divided into the requisite num- with every sixth mark numbered; machines by female operatives.”
ber of doses. Each dose was placed
on a piece of paper, which was folded
and put in an envelope or box for
dispensing. The patient unfolded the
paper, emptied the powder into wa-
ter or some other fluid, and drank it.
Administration of oral medi-
cations as powders might be impos-
sible (e.g., if all the ingredients were
not in dry form) or undesirable (e.g.,
if the powder was unpalatable when Folding a powder paper (left) and creasing the end folds (Remington, page 954).
mixed in fluid). In such cases, pills
were often prescribed. Pills were pills were commonly prescribed Whether the pill cylinder was
made by mixing dry or semisolid in multiples of six. The mass was cut on a pill tile or a pill machine,
constituents with a binder to create rolled with a spatula into a cylinder the resultant pieces were rolled into
a mass resembling cookie dough, until it reached from the zero mark spheres, usually between the fingers.
which was then divided into the re- on the tile’s scale to the number that A pill finisher or pill roller was a flat-
quired number of doses. Among the represented the prescribed number surfaced tool that could also be used
common dosage forms prepared by of pills. The pharmacist then cut the to roll the pieces against the pill tile
pharmacists, pills could be the most cylinder with the edge of the spatula to form spheres. The pills were often
No. 10 5
dusted with powder (e.g., powdered to reveal the character of the ingredients, and letter.
licorice root, sifted arrowroot) to . . . that it shows a lack of confidence in the Coblentz, V. Handbook of Pharmacy, 2nd
prevent them from sticking to each prescriber on the part of the patient. . . . The ed. (Philadelphia: P. Blakiston, Son &
pharmacist . . . is ethically bound to sustain Co., 1897).
other, and were set aside to dry.
[the physician] and cheerfully co-operate Hasegawa, G. R. “Pharmacy in the American
If a pill’s taste was especially with him. Civil War,” Am. J. Health-Syst. Pharm.
vile, even when swallowed quickly, (2000) 57: 475-89.
it could be coated with a substance Pharmacy leaders like Parrish Mohr, F., Redwood, T., Procter, W. Practi-
(e.g., gelatin) to conceal the taste. promoted professional behavior, yet cal Pharmacy (Philadelphia: Lea and
Blanchard, 1849).
The same purpose could be accom- pharmacy, like medicine, was com-
Parrish, E. A Treatise on Pharmacy, 3rd ed.
plished by coating the pills with sil- monly considered a trade rather than (Philadelphia: Henry C. Lea, 1867).
ver or gold. This was done by plac- a profession. There were few phar- Pereira, J. Physicians’ Prescription Book,
ing moist undusted pills with a few macy schools, and most pharmacists 14th ed. (Philadelphia: Lindsay and
Blakiston, 1865).
pieces of silver or gold leaf into a pill were not pharmacy graduates. The
Remington, J. P. The Practice of Pharmacy:
silverer, an apparatus that formed probability that professional deport-
A Treatise (Philadelphia: Lippincott,
a hollow sphere when assembled. A ment was not universal is suggested 1886).
few shakes of the silverer would re- by the following remarks from Wil- Smith, G. W. Medicines for the Union Army
sult in metal-covered pills. Pharma- liam Procter’s American edition of (Madison, WI: American Institute of the
History of Pharmacy, 1962).
cists realized that coating pills might Mohr and Redwood’s 1849 pharmacy
Wood, G. B., Bache, F. The Dispensatory of
prevent their absorption in the gas- textbook: the United States of America, 11th ed.
trointestinal tract. (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1858).
Pills made in bulk for later dis- The dispenser who licks the lip of the syrup- Woodward, J. J. The Hospital Steward’s
pensing were stored in a glass bottle, bottle, after pouring out what he requires; Manual (Philadelphia: Lippincott,
who removes any foreign body from a mixture 1862).
and those for a specific prescription
by putting his finger into it, or puts a cork
were usually dispensed in a two-part, between his teeth to soften it and make it fit
*Senior Editor, American Journal of Health-System
flat cylindrical pill box, which was la- the mouth of a bottle, might be compared to
Pharmacy, American Society of Health-System
beled. an ill-bred person, who, at meal-time, drinks
Pharmacists, 7272 Wisconsin Avenue, Bethesda,
from the decanter, helps himself to salt with
MD 20814
his fingers, or cuts bread from the loaf with
Pharmacist Deportment a knife which has just been in his mouth. He Based on a lecture presented at the 13th National
who prepares the dose for the sickly, and often Convention of the Society of Civil War Surgeons,
Parrish included in his phar- fastidious patient, should be especially careful Chattanooga, Tennessee, 25 March 2006.
macy textbook some suggestions, that he add no repulsiveness to that which, of
necessity, belongs to the prescribed remedy.
many of which would not be out of
place today, for desirable behavior in
the pharmacy. For example:
•Never put up an article with- Conclusion
out you are certain it is right.
Compared with their modern
•Every person entering the
counterparts, dispensing pharma-
store, whether pauper or president,
cists of the Civil War era were more
infant or adult, white or colored,
concerned with obtaining drugs of
must be treated with courtesy and What Is It?
adequate quality, dealing with con-
kindness.
fusing units of weight, and spontane-
•Boisterous mirth and sullen
ously compounding relatively com-
temper are to be equally avoided as
plex formulations. Pharmacists of
productive of neither business nor
the period kept patients in the dark
business character.
about the nature of their prescrip-
•There are to be no masters
tions. Like today’s pharmacists, how-
and no servants. All useful employ-
ever, those of the mid-1800s handled
ment is honorable. Indolence is a
illegible and irrational prescriptions
disgrace.
and had to draw on a considerable
Pharmacists and physicians
store of drug knowledge to ensure
collaborated in concealing from pa-
that patients received the most use-
tients the nature of their prescrip-
ful form of prescribed medicine.
tions. According to Remington,
An apothecary has no right to reveal to a pa- References and Suggested
tient the character or medicinal effect of the Reading
ingredients which enter into a prescription.
When the names of the ingredients . . . are
persistently demanded by the patient, the dis- “Apothecary.” Medical Prescription Writing.
For explanation, see page 14.
penser can [state] that it is a breach of etiquette Am. Med. Times (1862) 5:220-221,
6 Apothecary’s Cabinet
Apothecary’s Cabinet Author and Title Index (No. 1-10)
(Articles are listed by both author and title, Greenies at Home (1:9), Helfand, William H. Pharmacy in the American Century (1:1-5),
with author names in italics. Notes and Griffenhagen, George, Evolution of Drug Higby, Gregory J.
other items without authors are listed sepa- Containers (8:5-8); Philatelic Practic- Pharmacy over the Moon (4:8-9), Staiger,
rately. The issue number is listed first in ing Pharmacists (7:11-13); Philatelic Christiane
bold, followed by the page numbers.) Recognition of History of Pharmacy Philatelic Practicing Pharmacists (7:11-13),
(1:6-8) Griffenhagen, George
Harris, Michael R., A Note on Historical Philatelic Recognition of History of Pharmacy
AIHP Celebrates 60 Years (note) (2:6)
Plague Prevention (10:8-9) (1:6-8), Griffenhagen, George
Ali, Monica and Warren, Flynn, Edwin W.
Harris, Michael and Richardson, Charles, Pinchak, Frank, William Jenning Bryan,
Grove, Pharmacist, Entrepreneur, and
Collecting Pharmaceutical Antiques Clarence Darrow, and Pharmacist F. E.
Host to the Rich and Famous (6:9-10)
(3:1-3) Robinson (10:9-12)
Boom and Bust: Sassafras (8:9), Cowen,
Hassegawa, Guy R., Preparing and Dispens- Pioneer Herbal Drug: The Early History
David L.
ing Prescriptions during the Civil War of American Ginseng (5:1-6), Higby,
Century of Change: The Coming of Miracle
Era (10:1-6) Gregory J.
Drugs (2:1-5), Swann, John P.
Headline: Lewis & Clark Bought Imported Pioneer Village Apothecary Shop (Spring
Cigarette Cards (3:4), Helfand, William H.
Drugs! (8:1-4), Higby, Gregory J. Mill State Park, Mitchell, IN) (8:11-12),
Collecting Pharmaceutical Antiques (3:1-
Helfand, William H., Cigarette Cards (3:4); Zacharias, Mark
3), Harris, Michael and Richardson,
The Greenies at Home (1:9); New York Preparing and Dispensing Prescriptions dur-
Charles
Quinine and Chemical Works (5:9); ing the Civil War Era, Hassegawa, Guy
Cowen, David L., Boom and Bust: Sassafras
Nineteenth-Century Manufacturing R. (10:1-6)
(8:9); History of Pharmacy and the
Promotion (4:10); Parson’s Purgative Richardson, Charles, and Harris, Michael,
History of the South (6:1-5); Indus-
Pills (7:6); Sears Roebuck & Co. (6:11); Collecting Pharmaceutical Antiques (3:1-
trial Origins and Pharmacy (5:10); Le
Smoke Ball Cure (2:7) 3), Collecting Pharmaceutical Antiques
Coquetier (1:13); Swallowing the Pill
Higby, Gregory J., Early Drug Wholesalers, (3:1-3)
(4:6); The Drugstore and the Telephone
(2:8-9); Emergence of American Phar- Sears Roebuck & Co. (6:11), Helfand, Wil-
(3:11); Tying the Knot—Secundum
macy (3:7-10); A Pioneer Herbal Drug: liam H.
Artem (2:13)
The Early History of American Ginseng Smoke Ball Cure (2:7), Helfand, William H.
Decorative Style in American Pharmacy
(5:1-6); Headline: Lewis & Clark Bought Sonnedecker, Glenn, Drugs for Feudal Ja-
(note) (2:6)
Imported Drugs! (8:1-4); Pharmacy in pan—A Woodcut (7:7-9)
Drachms & Scruples: apothecary (1:14);
the American Century (1:1-5) Staiger, Christiane, Pharmacy over the Moon
avoirdupois (2:14); boluses (7:14);
History of Pharmacy and the History of the (4:8-9)
bougies (7:14); cements (7:14); ce-
South (6:1-5), Cowen, David L. Stroud, Elaine C., Who are they now? (5:11);
rate (2:14); collodions (7:14); cones,
Industrial Origins and Pharmacy (5:10), Pharmacy and Exploration (4:7-8)
medicated (8:15); confection [O.E.D]
Cowen, David L. Swallowing the Pill (4:6), Cowen, David L.
(2:14); confections (6:14); congius
Le Coquetier (1:13), Cowen, David L. Swann, John P., A Century of Change: The
(2:14); cucufa (5:14); drachm (1:14);
New York Quinine and Chemical works illus- Coming of Miracle Drugs (2:1-5); The
dragées (5:14); draughts (5:14); drops
tration (5:9), Helfand, William H. Formation and Early Work of the Drug
(6:14); drug (1:14); electuaries (6:14);
News and Notes: 125 Years of Pharmacy Laboratory, USDA Bureau of Chemistry
elixirs (3:14); emulsions (6:14); extracts
(Oswald’s Pharmacy, Naperville, Il- (9:1-9)
(3:14); fluidglycerates (6:14); fomen-
linois) (2:11); Approximate Measures Throop Pharmacy Museum (5:7-8), Obos,
tations (6:14); grain (2:14); magmas
(4:5); Harper’s Weekly Cartoon (4:5); Lee Anna
(4:14); menstruum (2:14); milks (4:14);
How to make colored water in show Tying the Knot—Secundum Artem (2:13),
moxa (8:15); mull (2:14); pasta (3:14);
globes (3:6); International Congress Cowen, David L.
pearls (4:14); pencils (4:14); pharmacist
on the Iconography and Cult of Saints Warren, Flynn and Ali, Monica, Edwin W.
(1:14); scruple (1:14); spasmadraps
Cosmas and Damian (10:12); New Grove, Pharmacist, Entrepreneur, and
(5:14); tablets (9:14); tincture (2:14);
Orleans Pharmacy Museum (6:6-7); Host to the Rich and Famous (6:9-10)
wafers (9:14)
New UW-Madison Pharmacy Build- What is in a Name” Edward Parrish on the
Drugs for Feudal Japan—A Woodcut (7:7-9),
ing (3:13); Pharmacy Compounding Profession of Pharmacy (1866) (7:5),
Sonnedecker, Glenn
Museum (2:10); Pharmacy Education Parrish, Edward
Drugstore and the Telephone (3:11), Cowen,
in 1910 (3:5); Salk Exhibit at Univer- What is it? “cantar” for weighing opium
David L.
sity of Pittsburgh Pharmacy Museum (8:15); pharmaceutical novelty (“pille-
Early Drug Wholesalers, (2:8-9), Higby,
(1:10); Youngken Herbarium Donated neinnehmer”) (9:12); Konseal apparatus
Gregory J.
to American Botanical Council (2:10) (1:14); Pill machine in drawer (2:14);
eAuctions and Pharmaceutical Antique
Nineteenth-Century Manufacturing Promo- Mechanical Pill Roller for the Prescrip-
Collecting—eCaveat Emptor (4:1-4),
tion (4:10), Helfand, William H. tion Counter (7:14); Michael Powder
Palmieri, Anthony, III
A Note on Historical Plague Prevention, Har- Divider (6:13); Pill-making machine
Edwin W. Grove, Pharmacist, Entrepreneur,
ris, Michael R. (10:8-9) (5:13); Practical Sponge Holder (4:13);
and Host to the Rich and Famous (6:9-
Obos, Lee Anna, Throop Pharmacy Museum Set of auricles (3:14); Tablet Counting
10), Ali, Monica and Warren, Flynn
(5:7-8) Device (10:14)
Emergence of American Pharmacy (3:7-10),
Palmieri, Anthony, III, eAuctions and Phar- Who are they now? (5:11), Stroud, Elaine C.
Higby, Gregory J.
maceutical Antique Collecting—eCaveat William Jenning Bryan, Clarence Darrow,
Essay on “History” (4:12-13), Zellmer, Wil-
Emptor (4:1-4) and Pharmacist F. E. Robinson, Pinchak,
liam
Parrish, Edward, “What is in a Name” Frank (10:9-12)
Evolution of Drug Containers (8:5-8),
Edward Parrish on the Profession of Zacharias, Mark, Pioneer Village Apothecary
Griffenhagen, George
Pharmacy (1866) (7:5) Shop (Spring Mill State Park, Mitchell,
Formation and Early Work of the Drug
Parson’s Purgative Pills (7:6), Helfand, Wil- IN) (8:11-12)
Laboratory, USDA Bureau of Chemistry
liam H. Zellmer, William, Essay on “History” (4:12-
(9:1-9), Swann, John P.
Pharmacy and Exploration (4:7-8), Stroud, 13)
Glass Label Bottles in Pharmacy (note),
Elaine C.
(1:11)
No. 10 7
A Note on Historical Plague
Prevention
By Michael R. Harris
I you visit Venice during pre-Lenten carnival, you
F
might see revelers wearing a bird-like mask that is sold
in the famous mask stores of the city. The mask pokes
fun at the plague doctors who wore it as a protective
device in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Historically, the stylized mask has had a traditional role
in French and Italian theater. In comic productions,
pompous doctors wore a plague outfit consisting of a
mask resembling a long-billed bird head, long protec-
Doktor Schnabel, engraving by Paul Fürst
tive robes of heavy fabric or leather, a large hat in the
(after J. Columbina) Rome, 1656.
style often worn by university academics, and a white
wooden stick that showed status as a public health of- apothecaries were originally part of the Pepperer and
ficial. The white stick was a practical tool to test if a Spicer’s guild before they separated in 1617. The apoth-
fallen citizen was dead, and the heavy garments were a ecary would use his most aromatic and expensive herbs
protection from the unseen disease. We know now that and spices in the preparation of the protective solution:
fleas from infected rats transmitted the disease and the cloves, cinnamon, rosemary, thyme, garlic, pepper,
heavy fabric or leather could have offered some pro- sage, rose oil, and flower petals, etc., would commonly
tection from the deadly fleas. The third accoutrement be the items of choice.
of the plague doctor was the unique bird-head-shaped A product that is a direct descendant of these aro-
mask. Today the masks that are sold in Venice are styl- matic preparations can still be found today. In the south-
ized with a very large beak and a pair of black-rimmed ern United States stores devoted to Hoodoo, Voodoo,
pince-nez eyeglasses painted on, indicating that the and spiritual products and candles carry “Four Thieves
wearer could read and therefore was a scholar. The Vinegar,” as an item that will protect you from evil. You
beak of the mask holds the most interest for histori- wear it or spread it on the floor or walls of your house.
ans of pharmacy—inside the beak at the very tip of the Similar products are mentioned in several histories
mask a small sponge or balled piece of cloth about two of the plague. The common story goes that a group of
inches in diameter was placed. This absorbent material thieves were robbing people who died of the plague. By
was soaked with a vinegar solution containing a num- extension it was believed that because the thieves did not
ber of aromatic herbs and spices. succumb to the disease, they had a method of prevent-
With the belief that disease is carried in the air or ing the plague and allowing them to rob the dead with-
in a miasma, people felt they could best protect them- out contacting the disease. The truth is that thieves died
selves with strong pleasant smelling vapors that would of the plague as often as anyone else. You could not tell
drive off the foul airs. At that time foul air was a con- if a dead person had been a thief before dying from the
stant in the environment. Refuse was simply dumped plague. There were many myths that were too good not
in the street; horse and animal manure covered every to be true—and so it is with the Four Thieves Vinegar.
“Apothecary” is derived from the Greek word for store room, and came to refer to one who kept a store or shop of non-perishable com-
modities, such as spices, drugs, comfits, preserves, etc. (from OED). Indicative of the fact that preventative preparations of the time were
made from herbs and spices, London apothecaries were originally part of the Grocer’s guild before they separated in 1617.
road; bathing was rare, and the use of soap even rarer. A recently published book, The Element Book of
Those who could afford it would carry flowers or other 5000 Spells (2004), by Judika Illes lists a formula and
sweet smelling devices such as an orange covered with tells the tale of the Four Thieves Vinegar. The author at-
cloves stuck into the skin of the fruit. tributes the preparation to the thieves of plague folklore
An “Apothecary” or “Spicer” used wine or vin- dating from the crusades to the eighteenth century, and
egar as the vehicle of choice to make up a solution of taking place in London, Marseilles, or somewhere in
botanical products. Since a majority of the preparations Italy. All three locations were major sites of plague. The
of the time were made from herbs and spices, English story goes—according to Illes—that four thieves were
8 Apothecary’s Cabinet
caught robbing the dead and traded
their formula for their freedom, di-
vulging the following:
1. A base of wine or cider
vinegar
2. Crushed garlic cloves—the
William Jennings Bryan, Clarence
more garlic the better
3. Thieves three and four
Darrow, and Pharmacist F. E. Robinson
listed one or more of the botanical
ingredients: black pepper, whole cay-
enne or other chili pepper, coriander,
lavender, mint, rosemary, rue, sage, By Frank Pinchak*
thyme, or wormwood.
The herbs listed as ingredients
would be an interesting set for inves- IN 1977 my family and I were in Athens, Tennessee, to attend a wedding.
tigation. Some reflect importation On the return trip to the airport, we saw a sign for Dayton, TN, and because
from the Americas or the Far East. It there were three hours until departure, we turned off I-75 to visit arguably
is curious that some of the most pop- the most famous courtroom in America. The road ran down to the river
ular aromatic spices used in Europe where a small barge-ferry, pushed along on a cable, crossed us over to Day-
in the fourteenth through eighteenth ton. A resident gave us directions with a sly wink, saying, “You want the
centuries—cloves, nutmeg, and cin- Monkey Courthouse. . . . Straight ahead, . . . Can’t miss it.”
namon—are not included.
Judika Illes lists several uses
for the Four Thieves Vinegar. My fa-
vorite involves taking the business
card of someone to whom you owe
money and placing it in a glass. Then
you pour the vinegar preparation into
the glass, covering the card. This will
drive away the lender and keep you
from having to pay the debt.
For further reading, Caroline
Morrow Long’s Spiritual Merchants:
Religion, Magic, and Commerce
(2001) presents an interesting story
of the Hoodoo and Voodoo in Ameri-
ca, and the pharmacies that were part
of its history.
At the museum in the Rhea County Courthouse in Dayton, the exhibit shows a
replica of the drugstore of pharmacist F. E. Robinson, also known as the “hus-
tling druggist.” As president of the county school board, Robinson directed the
trial project from the first day. (Photo credit: Frank Pinchak.)
The beautiful Romanesque/Italian villa-style building with its three-
story clock tower, was built in 1891. The second-floor courtroom has been
kept, without any changes, exactly as it was in 1925: jury chairs with high
backs and soft cushions for comfort, slightly creaky floors, and the wide, ex-
tremely tall windows stretching high as though seeking divine answers to the
mighty questions put forth by the trial.
A request for postcards directed us across the street to Robinson’s
drugstore, operated by Wallace E. Robinson, known to everyone as “W.E.”
He lit up as he learned I was a fellow pharmacist curious for information.
With delight he showed his gallery of framed trial photographs on the wall. I
then shared my interest in the happenings as dramatized in Inherit the Wind.
With a chuckle and a shake of his head as though he heard this story many
times before, he told us more about the trial. Much more.
Two modern examples of “Four He contended that the motion picture was 100 percent incorrect. In
Thieves Vinegar.” (From the Collec- actuality, the Dayton civic leaders had cooked up the spectacular monkey-
tion of Michael Harris.) business, and the ringmaster running the circus was a pharmacist, his father,
No. 10 9
Photo credit: Bryan College
At Robinson’ s drugstore in Dayton, Tennessee, the city fathers made plans in 1925 that started the Scopes evolution trial
(photo courtesy Bryan College).
Frank Earle Robinson, known to lo- was not based on actual history, the John W. Butler introduced House
cals as “F.E.” contributions of these entertainment bill 185. The bill stated, “That it shall
Subsequent visits to Dayton writers was definitely biased on the be unlawful for any teacher in any
over a twenty-five-year period al- side of Darwin. The name of phar- of the universities, Normals, and
lowed research for this piece. On a macist F. E. Robinson, who instigat- all other public schools of the state
recent trip, the helpful staff at Day- ed the affair, was never mentioned. which are supported in whole or in
ton’s library welcomed us and direct- One must recall the attitudes part by the public school funds of the
ed us to the History of Rhea County, of the 1920s, and that Tennessee was State, to teach any theory that denies
which contains a factual account of solidly within the so-called “Bible the Divine Creation of man as taught
the “World’s Most Famous Court Belt.” Religion was intertwined with in the bible, and to teach instead that
Trial,” written by Richard M. Cor- politics and, as always, politicians man descended from a lower order
nelius. A prolific writer and expert were not going to alienate voters. of animals.” The bill passed the Ten-
on the event, Cornelius is Professor The State Legislature had been hotly nessee House by a vote of 71 to 5 and
Emeritus of English and Archivist debating a bill about the teaching the state Senate 24 to 6. Eight days
at nearby Bryan College. This article of Darwin’s evolution theory versus later it was signed by the governor
draws on his work. biblical theology. While fighting car- (21 March 1925).
Most individuals living today ried on, William Jennings Bryan was On the morning of 4 May 1925,
have formed their impressions of the lecturing in Nashville on “Is the Bible George W. Rappleyea, a New Yorker
1925 Scopes Evolution Trial from True?” Reprints of Bryan’s speech and manager of a failing coal and
stage, motion picture, and televi- were blanketed on the members pro- mining business in Dayton was read-
sion adaptations of the play, Inherit voking them to cut off debate. ing his morning issue of the Chat-
the Wind, by Jerome Lawrence and That time, the place, and the tanooga Times at his usual wire-
Robert Lee. Even though the authors mixture of politics and religion all legged table by the soda fountain in
included a disclaimer that their work came together when Representative Robinson’s drugstore. He read that,
10 Apothecary’s Cabinet