Table Of ContentPracticing Archaeology
Practicing Archaeology
An Introduction to Cultural Resources Archaeology
Second Edition
T W. N R M. S
HOMAS EUMANN AND OBERT ANFORD
A Division of
ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC.
Lanham (cid:129) New York (cid:129) Toronto (cid:129) Plymouth, UK
Published by AltaMira Press
A division of Rowman & Littlefi eld Publishers, Inc.
A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefi eld Publishing Group, Inc.
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Copyright © 2010 by AltaMira Press
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or
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from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Neumann, Thomas William.
Practicing archaeology : an introduction to cultural resources archaeology / Thomas W. Neumann and Robert M.
Sanford. — 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Previously published: Walnut Creek, CA : AltaMira Press, c2001, with title Practicing archaeology : a training manual for
cultural resources archaeology.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7591-1806-5 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-7591-1807-2 (electronic)
1. Archaeology—Vocational guidance—United States. 2. Archaeology—Methodology. 3. Cultural property—
Protection—United States—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 4. Historic sites—Conservation and restoration—United
States—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 5. Historic preservation—United States—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 6. United
States—Antiquities—Collection and preservation—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Sanford, Robert M. II. Title.
CC107.N49 2010
930.1—dc22 2009031832
(cid:2)
TM
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard
for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.
Printed in the United States of America
Contents
Preface to the Second Edition xi
Preface to the First Edition xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Credits xvi
1 Introduction and Overview of Professional Archaeology 1
1.1. Introduction: Purpose, Audience, and Overview of Contents 1
1.2. Brief History of Extra-Academic and Professional Archaeology and Cultural Resources
Legislation 5
1.2.1. Initial Federal Involvement in Cultural Resources 7
1.2.2. WPA Archaeology and Its Infl uence on Modern Professional Archaeology 9
1.2.2.1. Government Regulation versus Academic Independence 10
1.2.2.2. Quality of Work under Deadline Conditions 12
1.2.2.3. Reasons for Excavation: Chosen Research Problem versus
Circumstantial Research Problem 12
1.2.2.4. Analysis and Publication 13
1.2.3. Post–World War II and Formulation of Professional Archaeology 14
1.2.3.1. The Missouri Basin Project 14
1.2.3.2. Legislation, Expansion of Government, and Academic Growth 16
1.2.3.3. B ifurcation 17
1.3. Current Structure of Archaeology in the United States 21
1.3.1. Archaeology Within the Academic World 21
1.3.2. Archaeology Outside of the University 25
1.4. Summary 28
2 Laws, Regulations, and Protocols 31
2.1. Purposes and Objectives 31
2.2. Federal Laws and Regulations: Section 106 Process 33
2.2.1. Section 106 34
2.2.2. Implementing Section 106: 36 CFR Part 800 “Protection of Historic Properties” 34
2.2.2.1. Some Concepts: Historic Property, Undertaking, Effect, Lead Agency,
Determination 34
2.2.2.2. S ignifi cance and 36 CFR 60 37
2.2.2.3. The Parties in the Section 106 Process 40
2.2.2.4. Steps along the Way: The Process 41
2.2.2.5. Reexamination and Comment in Detail on the Section 106 Process 45
2.2.3. Additional Factors and Agency Regulations 50
2.3. Additional Regulations and Requirements 52
2.3.1. The Section 106 Process and the National Environmental Policy Act 52
2.3.2. Other Legislation, Regulations, and Guidelines 54
v
2.3.2.1. A dditional Legislation 54
2.3.2.2. R egulations 56
2.3.2.3. G uidelines 57
2.4. State Laws, Regulations, and Protocols 57
2.5. Municipal and County Regulations 58
2.6. Summary 58
3 Proposals and Contracts 61
3.1. Purpose and Objectives 61
3.2. Government Contracts 64
3.2.1. Levels of Government and Needs 64
3.2.2. Where Government Needs Are Published 66
3.2.3. Responding to a Request for Proposals (RFP) 69
3.2.3.1. Contents of a Bid Package 71
3.2.3.2. Completing the Forms 71
3.2.3.3. Q ualifi cations Statement 72
3.2.3.4. T echnical Proposal 74
3.2.3.5. Competitive Budget Estimates 75
3.2.4. Structuring and Negotiating the “Best-and-Final” 78
3.3. Private-Sector Contracts 81
3.3.1. Types of Private-Sector Clients and Needs 81
3.3.2. Locating Private-Sector Clients 83
3.3.3. Assembling a Bid Package 85
3.3.3.1. Contents of a Bid Package 86
3.3.3.2. Q ualifi cations Statement 87
3.3.3.3. Project Design and Working with the Regulatory Agencies 88
3.3.3.4. Competitive Budget Estimates 89
3.3.4. Structuring and Negotiating the “Best-and-Final” 91
3.4. Summary 91
4. Preparing the Project Background 95
4.1. Purpose and Objectives 95
4.2. Project History 96
4.2.1. History of the Undertaking 96
4.2.2. History of the Project Area 99
4.2.2.1. I nterviews 100
4.2.2.2. State Site Files Search 105
4.2.2.3. SHPO/THPO (State/Tribal Historical Preservation Offi ce[r]) 107
4.2.2.4. L ocal History 108
4.2.2.5. Map Research and Area Reconstruction 108
4.3. Environmental Background and Soil Survey 111
4.4. Historic Background Narrative 114
4.5. Prehistoric Background Narrative 115
4.6. Summary 117
5 The Phase I Process: Identifi cation of Possible Historic Properties 119
5.1. Intent and Goals 119
5.2. Project Structure and Pre-fi eld Preparation 120
5.2.1. Site and Region Documentation 121
5.2.2. Contacts, Public Relations 123
vi CONTENTS
5.2.3. Labor Estimates 125
5.2.4. Staffi ng Needs 129
5.2.4.1. N on-fi eld Support Personnel 129
5.2.4.2. Hiring or Assigning Field Personnel 129
5.2.5. Field Logistics: Housing, Per Diem, Transport 130
5.2.6. Equipment and Supply Needs 132
5.2.7. Setting Up 132
5.2.7.1. P roject Maps 132
5.2.7.2. Subsurface Survey: Planning Shovel Test Transects 134
5.3. Field 140
5.3.1. Landscape History: Vegetational and Pedological Data 141
5.3.1.1. Land-Use History Based on Vegetation Succession 141
5.3.1.2. Land-Use History and the Soil Profi le 143
5.3.2. Field Methods 149
5.3.2.1. Subsurface Testing by Shovel Testing 149
5.3.2.2. Setting Up Shovel Testing in the Field 151
5.3.2.3. Doing Shovel Testing 153
5.3.3. Field Notes and Records 153
5.4. Post-fi eld 161
5.4.1. Level of Analyses Expected 162
5.4.2. Addressing Basic Phase I Issues 164
5.4.3. General Structure of Report 165
5.4.4. Additional Tasks: Site Forms 166
5.5 Summary 167
6 The Phase II Process: Testing and Evaluation 169
6.1. Intent and Goals 169
6.2. Project Structure and Pre-fi eld Preparation 171
6.2.1. Phase I Investigations and Recommendations 171
6.2.2. Research and Sampling Strategies 172
6.2.3. Site and Region Documentation 173
6.2.4. Contacts, Public Relations 175
6.2.5. Labor Estimates 178
6.2.6. Staffi ng Needs 181
6.2.6.1. N on-fi eld Support Personnel 181
6.2.6.2. Hiring or Assigning Field Personnel 182
6.2.7. Field Logistics: Housing, Per Diem, Transport 183
6.2.8. Equipment and Supply Needs 185
6.2.9. Setting Up 186
6.2.9.1. P roject Maps 186
6.2.9.2. Relocating Phase I Testing Pattern 186
6.3. Field 187
6.3.1. Landscape History: Vegetational and Pedological Data 187
6.3.1.1. Land-Use History Based on Vegetation Succession 187
6.3.1.2. Land-Use History and the Soil Profi le 187
6.3.2. Field Methods 189
6.3.2.1. What Is Going to Be Done: Testing 189
6.3.2.2. Setting Up in the Field 189
6.3.2.3. Execution of Field Work 191
6.3.3. Field Notes and Records 197
Contents vii
6.4. Post-fi eld 207
6.4.1. Level of Analyses Expected 211
6.4.2. Addressing the Basic Phase II Issues 214
6.4.3. General Structure of Report 215
6.5. Summary 217
7 The Phase III Process: Mitigation through Data Recovery 219
7.1. Intent and Goals 219
7.2. Data Recovery Plan 221
7.2.1. Project History and Background 223
7.2.2. Environmental Background 224
7.2.3. History of Site Investigations 224
7.2.4. Place of Site in Overall History/Prehistory 225
7.2.5. Research Issues and Reasons for Signifi cance 226
7.2.6. Physical Characteristics of Site and Data Recovery Plan 228
7.3. Project Structure and Pre-fi eld Preparation 229
7.3.1. Site and Region Documentation 229
7.3.2. Local Contacts, Public Relations 230
7.3.3. Labor Estimates 232
7.3.4. Staffi ng Needs 235
7.3.4.1. N on-fi eld Support Personnel 239
7.3.4.2. Hiring or Assigning Field Personnel 240
7.3.5. Field Logistics: Housing, Per Diem, Transport 241
7.3.6. Equipment and Supply Needs 241
7.4. Field 242
7.4.1. Preparatory 242
7.4.1.1. Reconciliation with Maps of Previous Investigations 242
7.4.1.2. M apping 243
7.4.1.3. L andscape History 243
7.4.1.4. Site and Deposit Dynamics 243
7.4.2. Excavation Management 250
7.4.2.1. G eneral 250
7.4.2.2. Notebooks and Record Keeping 254
7.4.3. Closing Field Operations 256
7.5. Post-fi eld 258
7.5.1. Collections Processing 258
7.5.2. Analysis and Report Production 259
7.6. Closing the Project 260
7.7. Summary 261
8 Laboratory Structure, Processing, Analysis 263
8.1. Purpose and Objectives 263
8.2. Basic Laboratory Structure 264
8.2.1. Physical Plant and Equipment Needs 265
8.2.2. Confi guration 271
8.2.3. Budgeting 272
8.2.4. Management and Administrative Issues 273
8.2.4.1. Management and Internal Scheduling 273
8.2.4.2. Corporate Administrative Issues 274
viii CONTENTS
8.3. Processing 274
8.3.1. Verifi cation with Field Inventory 274
8.3.2. Artifacts 274
8.3.2.1. Cleaning, Stabilization, Conservation 274
8.3.2.2. C ataloguing 275
8.3.2.3. Labeling and Preparation for Curation 277
8.3.2.4. Databases and Related Management 279
8.3.3. Matrix Samples 280
8.3.3.1. R eduction 280
8.3.3.2. S orting 280
8.3.3.3. Labeling and Preparation for Curation 280
8.4. Levels of Analysis 282
8.4.1. Levels of Analysis: Laboratory Recordation 282
8.4.2. Levels of Analysis: Data Manipulation 284
8.5. Turn-over 286
8.5.1. Ownership, Curation, Jurisdiction 286
8.5.2. Managerial Responsibilities and Miscellaneous Matters 288
8.6. Summary 288
9 Report Preparation and Production 291
9.1. Purpose and Objectives 291
9.2. Tasks, Contents, and Report Structure 294
9.2.1. Tasks 294
9.2.1.1. B ackground 294
9.2.1.2. A nalysis 295
9.2.1.3. Figures and General Artwork 296
9.2.2. Contents and Report Structure 300
9.3. Production and Assembly of the Draft Report 306
9.4. The Review Process 307
9.4.1. Section 106 Review 307
9.4.2. Non–Section 106 Review 311
9.5. Final Report and Dissemination 311
9.6. Summary 313
Appendix: Register of Professional Archaeologists Code of Conduct and Standards of
Research Performance 315
Code of Conduct 315
Standards of Research Performance 316
References Cited 319
Index 329
About the Authors 345
Contents ix
