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PREFACE
This Practical Handbook has been constructed to serve as a convenient, compact, yet
comprehensive source of basic information. The technical data have been compiled and
selectively edited to provide an organized and definitive presentation of the physical prop
erties of rocks and their constituent minerals. The formal is primarily tabular and graphical
for easy reference and comparisons. There is also instructive textual material to present,
explain, and clarify the data.
Physical properties of rocks and minerals are of necessary interest and utility in many
fields of work—including geology, petrophysics, geophysics, materials science, geochem
istry, and geotechnical engineering. Assembled and collated data sets are finding ever-
increasing application in interdisciplinary studies and projects. The scale of investigation
ranges from the molecular and crystalline, up to terrestrial studies of Earth and other planetary
bodies. Geologists are interested in age-dating rocks to reconstruct the origin of mineral
deposits; seismologists in prospective earthquake prediction using premonitory physical
changes; crystallographers in the synthesis of minerals with special optical or physical
properties; exploration geophysicists in the variation of physical properties of subsurface
rocks to permit detection of natural resources such as oil and gas, geothermal energy, and
ores of metals; geotechnical engineers in the nature and behavior of the materials on or in
or of which such structures as buildings, dams, tunnels, bridges, or underground storage
vaults are to be constructed; solid-state physicists in the magnetic, electrical, and mechanical
properties of materials for electronic devices, computer components, or high-performance
ceramics; petroleum reservoir engineers in the response on well logs or in drilling in deep
rock at elevated temperature and pressure.
The various physical properties are addressed here in Sections, which have been prepared
by recognized authorities who are among the leaders of their specialties. These contributing
authors are drawn from leading university, governmental research, and industry establish
ments. They assisted with the precursory presentation in CRC Press’ Handbook of Physical
Properties of Rocks, published in three volumes in 1982 to 1984. That material has been
re-assembled, edited and abridged, and updated for the present work.
The initial section sets the stage for presenting and assessing physical properties, by
outlining the “Mineral composition of rocks”. This treats the chemical composition and
physical characteristics of rock types (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic), of pore fluids
(including geothermal fluids), of economic ores and fuels (coal, petroleum, oil shale and
tar sands, radioactive minerals), and of marine sediments. Properties of minerals and crystals
are presented, including petrographic characteristics. Compositions are also given for the
Earth’s crust and mantle, and for meteorites and Moon rock. The Section is assembled by
Kenneth F. Clark, Ph.D., Professor in the Department of Geological Sciences at the Uni
versity of Texas at El Paso, Texas.
Subsequent sections deal with the various individual physical properties. The first, “Dens
ities of rocks and minerals”, presents a massive data set on this fundamental and diagnostic
property by succinct use of histograms and statistical analysis of density ranges. Densities
are included for minerals, rocks, and soils. Outline is given of the determination of density
and porosity by calculation and by in situ methods. The Section is contributed by Gary R.
Olhoeft, Ph.D., of the Petrophysics and Remote Sensing Branch, U.S. Geological Survey,
Denver, Colorado, and Gordon R. Johnson of the same agency.
The Section on “Inelastic properties” addresses strength and rheology of rocks and
minerals. It presents a compilation of experimental data on the results of laboratory tests in
rock mechanics; stress-strain relations; the effects of pore fluids, time and stress rate, and
temperature; and rock friction. It is prepared by Stephen H. Kirby, Ph.D., of the Office of
Earthquake Studies, U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park California, and John W. Mc
Cormick, now with the State University of New York in Plattsburgh, New York.
“Magnetic properties of minerals and rocks” presents the magnetic and crystalline prop
erties of rock-forming magnetic minerals and analogous materials. Included are the various
types of remanent magnetization, and the magnetic properties susceptibility, coercive field,
Curie temperature, anisotropy, and saturation magnetization. The variation of properties
with chemical composition, grain size and shape, and temperature and pressure, is given.
This Section is compiled by the coordinating author and editor of this volume, Robert S.
Carmichael, Ph.D.
“Electrical properties” summarizes the conductivity/resistivity and dielectric constants of
minerals and dry rocks; along with the variation of electrical properties with temperature,
pressure, the frequency at which measurement is made, and lithology and porosity. Also
given are: induced polarization; the resistivity of brine and of water-bearing rocks; electrical
properties and electric logs of sedimentary rocks, of in situ sequences of rocks; and properties
of coal, permafrost, and the Earth’s interior. The Section is assembled by George V. Keller,
Ph.D., of the Department of Geophysics at Colorado School of Mines, Golden Colorado.
The Section on “Seismic velocities” gives compressional and shear wave velocities for
various rocks, minerals, marine sediments and water, aggregates and glasses, the Earth’s
crust and mantle, glaciers and permafrost. Laboratory and in situ measurements are included,
along with the variation of seismic velocity with degree of fluid saturation, and with pressure
and temperature. The material is compiled by Nikolas I. Christensen, Ph.D., now of the
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at Purdue University, West Lafayette Indiana.
In a companion Section on “Seismic attenuation”, attention is focussed on methods of
laboratory and seismological determination of attenuation, having application to oil explo
ration and terrestrial studies. Data are given for p- and s-wave attenuation for minerals, for
sedimentary and crystalline rocks, and for the Earth, and the invluence of strain amplitude,
pressure, frequency, and fluid saturation. The work is presented by Marius Vassiliou, Ph.D.,
now of Rockwell International Science Center, Thousand Oaks, California and by Bernhard
R. Tittmann, Ph.D., and Carlos A. Salvado of the Earth and Planetary Sciences Group at
Rockwell International Science Center in Thousand Oaks, California.
“Radioactivity properties of minerals and rocks” reviews the radioactive isotope systems
used in geochronology (age dating), and the decay constants, radiogenic heat production in
rocks, and the radioactive minerals. This is given by W. Randall Van Schmus, Ph.D., of
the Department of Geology, University of Kansas, Lawrence Kansas.
The Section on ’’Spectroscopic properties of rocks and minerals“ is a comprehensive
presentation of the interaction of geoscience materials with electromagnetic radiation in the
visible and infrared range. The properties of absorption/transmission, reflection and emission
are given, along with the spectral characteristics of minerals and rocks. The material was
diligently compiled by Graham R. Hunt, Ph.D., then of the Petrophysics and Remote Sensing
Branch of the U.S. Geological Survey, Denver Colorado, shortly before his untimely death.
“Engineering properties of rock” reviews factors and tests relating to rock appraisal,
characterization, and the assessment of properties such as strength, hardness, elastic con
stants, and deformation that would be of special interest in geotechnical engineering. Data
for various engineering properties is given, including the effects of pore-water pressure. The
Section is compiled by Allen W. Hatheway, Ph.D., in the Department of Geological En
gineering, University of Missouri, Rolla Missouri, and George A. Kiersch, Ph.D., emeritus
professor from Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
My thanks are extended to all who have contributed to the formulation and execution of
this work. The editorial function at CRC Press was performed by Sandy Pearlman, Amy
Skallerup, and Paul Gottehrer. The University of Iowa provided partial release time in the
form of a Developmental Leave. Final work was completed at the facilities of Meiji Uni
versity—at the School of Science and Engineering and with assistance of Dr. Takeo Ha-
mamoto of the Office of International Programs—and at the Tokyo Institute of Technology—
with opportunity and support there provided by Dr. Akira Sawaoka of the Research Lab of
Enginnering Materials.
Robert S. Carmichael
Iowa City Iowa, and Tokyo Japan
April 1988
THE AUTHOR
Robert S. Carmichael, Ph.D., is Professor of Geophysics and Geology in the Department
of Geology, University of Iowa, Iowa City. He graduated from the University of Toronto
with a B.A.Sc. degree in geophysics/engineering physics, and then earned M.S. and Ph.D.
degrees in Earth and Planetary Science from the University of Pittsburgh. His thesis spe
cialties were in seismology and rock magnetism, and while there, he was an Andrew Mellon
University Fellow.
After graduation in 1967, he spent a year at Osaka University in Japan as a postdoctoral
Research Fellow of the Japan Society for Promotion of Science, working in high-pressure
geophysics. Upon return, he joined Shell Oil’s Research Center in Houston as a research
geophysicist in petroleum exploration. Now at the University of Iowa, Dr. Carmichael has
research interests in rock properties, exploration geophysics, high-pressure geophysics and
magnetics, and earthquakes in the central Midcontinent region. In the past few years he has
been faculty geoscientist on a Semester-at-Sea circumglobal voyage, exchange visitor at the
University of Iceland in Reykjavik, U.S. organizer for the Fulbright Summer Geology
Program in Iceland, and visiting professor for a year at Meiji University in Tokyo.
He has authored numerous scientific articles, and done consulting for geotechnical and
seismic problems. He is a member of the American Geophysical Union, Society of Explo
ration Geophysicists, Iowa Academy of Science, and Society of Terrestrial Magnetism and
Electricity.
CONTRIBUTORS
Nikolas I. Christensen, Ph.D., earned his degrees at the University of Wisconsin. He
has worked in geology and geophysics at the Universities of Southern California and Wash
ington. Dr. Christensen is now a Professor of Geoscience at Purdue University. His research
centers on elastic properties of rocks and minerals, crystal physics, and applications to the
crust of the Earth.
Kenneth F. Clark, Ph.D., has degrees from the University of Durham (United Kingdom)
and New Mexico. He has worked as a geologist with Anglo-American Corporation/South
Africa and with Cornell University. From 1971 to 1980 he was at the University of Iowa
as Professor of Geology. His research has been in economic geology, mineral deposits, and
tectonism and mineralization. Dr. Clark is now with the Department of Geological Sciences
at the University of Texas at El Paso.
Allen W. Hatheway, Ph.D., has degrees from the Universities of Califomia/Los Angeles
and Arizona. He is a registered geologist, engineering geologist, and civil engineer in several
states and has worked in consulting geotechnical engineering for LeRoy Crandall & Asso
ciates, Woodward-Clyde Consultants, Shannon and Wilson, Inc. and Haley & Aldrich, Inc.
He is now with the University of Missouri at Rolla as Professor of Geological Engineering.
His technical interests include engineering geology and engineering properties of rocks.
Graham R. Hunt, Ph.D., D.Sc., earned degrees from the University of Sydney in
Australia and worked in spectroscopy at Tufts University, M.I.T., and the Air Force Cam
bridge Research Labs. At the time of writing his contribution, he was a Senior Research
Scientist with the U.S. Geological Survey as Chief of the Petrophysics and Remote Sensing
Branch in Denver. Dr. Hunt’s research has been in spectroscopy and physical chemistry,
molecular structure, and the remote sensing of the composition of terrestrial and extrater
restrial surfaces. He has since died after a brief illness.
Gordon R. Johnson graduated from Colorado State University and has since worked for
the U.S. Geological Survey in geophysical exploration for minerals and in physical properties
of rocks. He is with the Petrophysics and Remote Sensing Branch in Denver.
George V. Keller, Ph.D., graduated from Pennsylvania State University and then worked
for the U.S. Geological Survey. He is now a Professor of Geophysics at the Colorado School
of Mines and former Head of the Department. He is co-author of the book, Electrical
Methods in Geophysical Prospecting. Dr. Keller’s research includes electrical prospecting,
geothermal resources, physical rock properties, and the Earth’s crust.
George A. Kiersch, Ph.D., graduated from the Colorado School of Mines and the
University of Arizona. He worked as a geologist with the Army Corps of Engineers and
directed exploration programs for the University of Arizona and Southern Pacific Company
before joining Cornell University in 1960 as Professor of Engineering Geology. He served
as Chairman of Geological Sciences there from 1965 to 1971. Dr. Kiersch’s interests have
been in engineering geology, mineral deposits, and geomechanics. He is now Emeritus
Professor from Cornell.
Stephen H. Kirby, Ph.D., has degrees from the University of Illinois and the University
of California at Los Angeles. He has worked for the U.S. Geological Survey in their Heavy
Metals Branch in Denver, and is now a geophysicist in their Office of Earthquakes, Volcanoes
and Engineering in Menlo Park, California. The physical properties of rocks and minerals
are his primary research interest.
John W. McCormick, Ph.D., obtained his degrees at the Pennsylvania State University
and University of California at Los Angeles. He worked as a geophysicist at the U.S.
Geological Survey’s Office of Earthquake Studies in Menlo Park, California and is now in
the Department of Computer Sciences at the State University of New York at Plattsburgh.
Gary R. Olhoeft, Ph.D., has degrees from Massachusetts Institute of Technology and
the University of Toronto. He has worked for Kennecott Copper Corporations, NASA, and
Lockheed Electronics Company, and is now a research geophysicist for the U.S. Geological
Survey in Denver. His research interests are in the physical and chemical properties of rocks
and minerals.
Carlos A. Salvado graduated from the University of Rhode Island and then earned M.S.
degrees in physics from the University of Colorado and in geophysics from the California
Institute of Technology. He has worked for IBM and Sierra Geophysics, Inc., and as a
consultant for the Marine Research Laboratory of Maine, and was a Senior Research
Associate at Rockwell International Science Center in Thousand Oaks, California from 1980
to 1984. Since then he has been an independent consultant and entrepreneur. He is currently
President of Applied Sciences Corporation in Carlsbad, California, a company which de
velops instrumentation for the characterization of fiber-reinforced composite materials.
W. Randall Van Schmus, Ph.D., earned degrees from California Institute of Technology
and the University of California at Los Angeles. He has worked for the Lunar-Planetary
Research Branch of the Air Force Cambridge Research Labs, and since 1967 for the de
partment of Geology at the University of Kansas where he is a professor, his research
interests are in the geology, geochronology, and geophysics of Precambrian rocks and the
mineralogy and petrology of meteorites.
Bernhard R. Tittmann, Ph.D., earned his degrees at George Washington University
and the University of California at Los Angeles. He has worked for Hughes Aircraft, Inc.
and North American Aviation/Rockwell International, now being Manager of the Earth and
Planetary Sciences group at the latter’s Science Center in Thousand Oaks, California. He
has spent a year as a faculty physicist at the University of California at Los Angeles, and
a year as Visiting Professor at the University of Paris. His technical interests center on
seismic and mechanical properties, solid state physics, and ultrasonics.
Marius S. Vassiliou, Ph.D., received his doctorate in geophysics and electrical engi
neering from the California Institute of Technology in 1983. He also holds a Master’s degree
in Computer Science from the University of Southern California, and a Bachelor’s degree
from Harvard University. He has consulted to Rockwell and TRW, and worked at ARCO
Oil and Gas Co.’s research and development laboratory. Since 1985 he has been a Member
of the Technical Staff at the Rockwell International Science Center in Thousand Oaks,
California. His technical interests are in geophysics, materials science, and numerical com
putation.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION I
Mineral Composition of Rocks...............................................................................................1
Kenneth F. Clark
Introduction..............................................................................................................................3
Cosmic Abundances (Tables 1 to 12).....................................................................................3
Earth’s Crust (Tables 13 to 17)...............................................................................................3
Mantle and Core (Tables 18 to 22).........................................................................................5
Crystals and Minerals (Tables 23 to 27).................................................................................5
Petrographic Characteristics (Table 28)...................................................................................5
Mineralogy of Rock Kindreds (Table 29)...............................................................................5
Igneous Rocks (Tables 30 to 57).............................................................................................5
Sedimentary Rocks (Tables 58 to 63)....................................................................................10
Metamorphic Rocks (Tables 64 to 67) ..................................................................................10
Geochemical Cycle (Tables 68 to 71)....................................................................................10
Deep Sea Sediments (Tables 72 to 83)..................................................................................10
Ores and Economic Minerals (Tables 84 to 87)....................................................................10
Coal (Tables 88 to 98)............................................................................................................11
Petroleum, Including Oil Shale and Tar Sand (Tables 99 to 106).........................................12
Radioactive Minerals (Tables 107 to 108).............................................................................13
Geothermal Fluids (Table 109)..............................................................................................13
References............................................................................................................................125
SECTION II
Densities of Rocks and Minerals.........................................................................................139
Gary R. Olhoeft and Gordon R. Johnson
Concepts...............................................................................................................................141
Methods for Determining Porosity and Density..................................................................143
Direct and Calculated Determinations of Density...............................................................145
In Situ Measurements of Density and Porosity....................................................................147
Density Logging.........................................................................................................147
Porosity Logging........................................................................................................148
Borehole Gravimetry..................................................................................................149
Data Compilation.................................................................................................................150
References............................................................................................................................175
SECTION III
Inelastic Properties of Rocks and Minerals: Strength and Rheology..................................177
Stephen H. Kirby and John W. McCormick
Introduction..........................................................................................................................179
Laboratory Testing of Rock and Mineral Strength..............................................................179
General Mechanical Behavior of Rocks in Short-Term Triaxial Tests...............................182
Effects of Water and Other Fluids.......................................................................................183
Time-Dependent Strength Effects........................................................................................185
Brittle Creep...............................................................................................................186
Semi-Brittle Creep......................................................................................................187
Ductile Creep..............................................................................................................187
Rock Friction.......................................................................................................................190
