Pond aquaculture water quality management

711 Pages·1998·70.74 MB·English

by  Claude E Boyd

po D
QU ULTURE
WATER
QUALITY
M N <:iEME
p o D
AQU CUL URE
WATER
QUAL Y
~EME T
CLAUDE E. BOYD
Alo.bo.mo. A'5ricuhuro.l EHperiment sto.tion
Depo.rtment of fisheries o.nd Allied Aquo.cultures
Auburn universitv, Alo.bo.mo.
CRAI<j S. TUCKER
Delto. Reseo.rch o.nd EHtension center
Mississippi sto.te universitv
stoneville, Mississippi
~.
"
KLUWBR ACADBMIC PUBLISHBRS
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Boyd, Claude E.
Pond aquaculture water quality management / Claude E. Boyd, Craig S.
Tucker.
p. em.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-412-07181-9 (alk. paper)
1. Pond Aquaculture. 2. Aquatic organisms --Effect of water
pollution on. 3. Water quality management. I. Tucker, C.S.
(Craig S.), 1951- . II. Title.
SH1373.4.B686 1998
639.8--de21 97-48251
CIP
Copyright © 1998 by Kluwer Academic Publishers
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photo
copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
publisher, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 101 Philip Drive, Assinippi Park, Norwell,
Massachusetts 02061
Printed on acid-free paper.
Contents
Preface xi
Selected Atomic Weights xiii
Customary Metric Conversion Factors xv
1. Water Quality and Aquaculture: Preliminary considerations
1.1. Introduction
1.2. The Role of Pond Aquaculture 2
1.3. Water Quality Restraints 3
1.4. Water Quality Management 5
1.5. Water Quality Measurement 6
1.6. Prospectus 7
2. Ecology of Aquaculture Ponds 8
2.1. Introduction 8
2.2. Food Webs and Aquaculture Production 9
2.3. Aquaculture Production in Pond Culture Systems 13
2.4. Phytoplankton Communities 15
2.5. Carbon in Aquaculture Ponds 37
2.6. Nitrogen in Aquaculture Ponds 46
2.7. Phosphorus in Aquaculture Ponds 62
2.8. Fate of Nutrients and Organic Matter 70
2.9. Dissolved Oxygen in Aquaculture Ponds 75
3. Water Quality Requirements 87
3.1. Introduction 87
3.2. Aquatic Toxicology 87
3.3. Water Temperature 88
3.4. Salinity 94
vi / Contents
3.5. pH 100
3.6. Total Alkalinity 106
3.7. Total Hardness and Calcium 109
3.8. Dissolved Oxygen 113
3.9. Carbon Dioxide 121
3.10. Dissolved Gas Supersaturation 124
3.11. Ammonia 131
3.12. Nitrite 136
3.13. Nitrate 143
3.14. Hydrogen Sulfide 144
3.15. Copper and Other Heavy Metals 147
3.16. Chlorine 151
3.17. Turbidity 152
4. Water Use 154
4.1. Introduction 154
4.2. Types of Ponds 154
4.3. Water Budgets 157
4.4. Water Requirement for Aquaculture 168
4.5. Water Exchange 168
4.6. Water Conservation Techniques 174
5. Liming 178
5.1. Introduction 178
5.2. Liming Materials 178
5.3. Effects on Water Quality and Fish Production 190
5.4. Identification of Ponds Needing Lime 194
5.5. Soil Characteristics and Liming 198
5.6. Lime Requirement 206
5.7. Liming Practices 216
5.8. Acid Rain 224
6. Fertilization 226
6.1. Introduction 226
6.2. Chemical Fertilizers 226
6.3. Manures 245
6.4. Principles of Pond Fertilization 247
6.5. Review of Fertilization Trials 276
6.6. The Practice of Pond Fertilization 295
7. Aeration 306
7.1. Introduction 306
7.2. Aeration and Production 306
7.3. Mechanical Aerators 312
7.4. Gravity Aeration 320
Contents / vii
7.5. Aerator Performance 324
7.6. Improved Design for Paddle-Wheel Aerators 330
7.7. Practical Considerations 333
7.8. Predicting Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations 344
8. Water Circulation 354
8.1. Introduction 354
8.2. Temperature and Stratification 354
8.3. Devices for Circulating Pond Water 359
804. Measurement of Water Circulation 366
8.5. Effects of Water Circulation 371
9. Turbidity and Appearance of Water 374
9.1. Introduction 374
9.2. Measurements of the Appearance of Water 375
9.3. Enhancing Turbidity 379
9.4. Sources of Turbidity 380
9.5. Sedimentation in Ponds 380
9.6. Settling Basins and Erosion Control 382
9.7. Turbidity Removal from Pond Waters 384
10. Aquatic Weed Control 394
10.1. Introduction 394
10.2. Common Aquatic Weeds 394
10.3. The Occurrence of Weed Problems 406
lOA. Management of Aquatic Weed Problems 408
10.5. General Pond Management Practices 408
10.6. Biological Control 409
10.7. Chemical Control 413
10.8. Control of Phytoplankton Blooms 423
11. Off-Flavors and Harmful Algae 439
11.1. Introduction 439
11.2. Off-Flavors 439
11.3. Harmful Algae 461
12. Pollution 472
12.1. Introduction 472
12.2. Toxicity Tests 472
12.3. Types of Pollution 478
1204. Toxicity Investigations 490
12.5. Protection from Pollution 497
viii / Contents
13. Chemical, Physical, and Biological Treatments 498
13.1. Introduction 498
13.2. Oxidants 498
13.3. Piscicides 512
13.4. Toxic Metabolites and pH 516
13.5. Therapeutants 524
13.6. Probiotics 525
13.7. Bactericides 528
13.8. Miscellaneous Treatments 528
13.9. Registration of Chemicals 530
13.10. Application of Chemicals to Ponds 531
14. Waste Management 541
14.1. Introduction 541
14.2. Source of Nutrients and Organic Matter 541
14.3. Fate of Nutrients and Organic Matter 544
14.4. Sources of Suspended Solids 546
14.5. Volume of Effluents 547
14.6. Composition of Pond Effluents 548
14.7. Water Quality Improvement through Pond Management 551
14.8. Effluent Treatment 558
14.9. Environmental Effects 563
14.10. Solid Wastes 567
14.11. Effluent Regulations 570
14.12. Best Management Practices 573
15. Measurement of Water Quality 576
15.1. Introduction 576
15.2. Variability of Water Quality 576
15.3. Types of Water Assessment Programs 585
15.4. Guidelines for Sampling Programs 587
15.5. Water Samplers and Sample Storage 591
15.6. Water Analysis Kits and Portable Meters 595
15.7. Data Analysis and Records 599
16. Sustainability and Environmental Issues 601
16.1. Introduction 601
16.2. Environmental Concerns 602
16.3. Food Safety Considerations 609
16.4. Social Concerns 616
16.5. Sustainability 618
16.6. Environmental Impact Assessment 620
16.7. Impact Mitigation 621
16.8. Rehabilitation 622
Contents / ix
16.9. Demonstration and Education 622
16.10. Industry Efforts 623
References 625
Index 685
Preface
The efficient and profitable production of fish, crustaceans, and other aquatic
organisms in aquaculture depends on a suitable environment in which they can
reproduce and grow. Because those organisms live in water, the major environ
mental concern within the culture system is water quality. Water supplies for
aquaculture systems may naturally be oflow quality or polluted by human activity,
but in most instances, the primary reason for water quality impairment is the
culture activity itself. Manures, fertilizers, and feeds applied to ponds to enhance
production only can be partially converted to animal biomass. Thus, at moderate
and high production levels, the inputs of nutrients and organic matter to culture
units may exceed the assimilative capacity of the ecosystems. The result is
deteriorating water quality which stresses the culture species, and stress leads to
poor growth, greater incidence of disease, increased mortality, and low produc
tion. Effluents from aquaculture systems can cause pollution of receiving waters,
and pollution entering ponds in source water or chemicals added to ponds for
management purposes can contaminate aquacultural products. Thus, water quality
in aquaculture extends into the arenas of environmental protection and food
quality and safety.
A considerable body of literature on water quality management in aquaculture
has been accumulated over the past 50 years. The first attempt to compile this
information was a small book entitled Water Quality in Warmwater Fish Ponds
(Boyd I 979a). The information in that book has been updated twice (Boyd 1982a,
1990). However, the knowledge of water quality in aquaculture is expanding
rapidly, as are the demands on practical aquaculturists to exercise more aggressive
water quality management in their production systems. Therefore, we have joined
together to thoroughly revise the book Water Quality in Ponds for Aquaculture
(Boyd 1990). The earlier books contained major sections on the principles of
water quality, because practical aquaculturists and even the researchers, extension
agents, and consultants who advise them usually have only a vague understanding
xii / Preface
of these principles. The understanding of water quality principles within the
aquaculture community is still less than adequate, but for the sake of brevity,
we have limited the amount of background information on water quality in favor
of providing more details on water quality management in this volume. Those
who need more information on basic principles, and water chemistry in particular,
can consult Boyd (1990).
The purpose of our book is to provide a practical account of water quality
management for commercial aquaculture. The adjective commercial is somewhat
redundant because, to our knowledge, almost all aquaculture is a business, and
even researchers involved in aquaculture are conducting their efforts for the
purpose of improving techniques for use by farmers. We hope that this book
will be useful to graduate students, researchers, extension agents, producers, and
others involved in the aquaculture industry who at various times are confronted
with water quality problems and issues.
We are extremely grateful to a great number of people who have either enlight
ened us about certain aspects of water quality management, collaborated with
us on research projects, joined in meaningful exchanges of ideas, presented us
difficult, practical problems for which answers were important, and scolded us
because we were unable to provide answers. We cannot remember everyone, but
some were particularly helpful and unforgettable to include: Y oram A vnimelich,
the late H. S. Swingle, E. W. Shell, H. R. Schmittou, Barnaby Watten, Prasert
Munsiri, C. Kwei Lin, Fred Adams, E. E. Prather, Ben Hajek, Dan Fegan, Sidthi
and Mali Boonyaratpalin, Alfonso Delfini, Gilberto Escobar, Norman Chwang,
Yont Musig, Don Johnson, Malcolm Johnson, Jr., Edward Scura, Michael Phillips,
Gary Proder, Wes Wood, the late Joseph Durda, Thed Spree, Harry Daniels,
John Jensen, Larry Benefield, Greg Whitis, Noel Morrissy, Plodprasop Suraswadi,
Suraphol Pratuangtum, Tim Flegel, George Chamberlain, Yoshi Hirono, Jorge
Calderon, Tineke van der Ploeg, John Hester, Arlo Fast, and John Hargreaves.
This book could not have been completed without the efforts of June Bums and
Susan Kingsbury in typing and editing the manuscript and the assistance of Amit
Gross with the drawings.