Polymer Composites in the Aerospace Industry (Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering)

666 Pages·2019·24.081 MB·English

by  P. E. Irving (editor), C. Soutis (editor)

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Woodhead Publishing Series in
Composites Science and Engineering
Polymer Composites in
the Aerospace Industry
Second Edition
Edited by
Philip Irving
School of Aerospace, Transport and
Manufacture, University of Cranfield,
Cranfield, United Kingdom
Constantinos Soutis
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and
Civil Engineering and the Aerospace Research
Institute, University of Manchester,
Manchester, United Kingdom
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Contributors
E. Archer Ulster University, Newtownabbey, Ulster,UnitedKingdom
R.H.Bossi The Boeing Company (retired),Seattle, WA, United States
Andreas J. Brunner Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and
Technology,D€ubendorf,Switzerland
Richard Butler Materials and Structures Research Centre, Department of
Mechanical Engineering,University of Bath, Bath, UnitedKingdom
W.J. Cantwell Department of Aerospace Engineering, Khalifa University of
Science and Technology (KUST), Abu Dhabi,UnitedArabEmirates
M. David ARC Training Centre for Automated Manufacture of Advanced
Composites,SchoolofMechanicalandManufacturingEngineering,UNSW,Sydney,
NSW, Australia
Glyn Davies Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
J.P.Foreman University ofSheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
G.E. Georgeson The Boeing Company, Seattle, WA, UnitedStates
Victor Giurgiutiu University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States
Philip Irving School of Aerospace, Transport and Manufacture, University of
Cranfield, Cranfield, United Kingdom
Dmitry S. Ivanov Bristol Composites Institute ACCIS (Advanced Composite
Collaboration for Innovation and Science), University of Bristol, Bristol,
United Kingdom
A.F. Johnson Composites Consultant, Stuttgart, Germany
F.R. Jones University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
M.W. Joosten DeakinUniversity, Geelong,VIC, Australia
C. Kassapoglou Delft University ofTechnology,Delft, The Netherlands
G.S. Langdon Blast and Impact Survivability Research Unit, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Western Cape,
South Africa
xii Contributors
Stepan V. Lomov Department of Materials Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven,
Belgium
C.T. McCarthy University ofLimerick, Limerick, Ireland
M.A. McCarthy University ofLimerick, Limerick, Ireland
A. McIlhagger Ulster University, Newtownabbey,Ulster, United Kingdom
R. McIlhagger Ulster University, Newtownabbey,Ulster, United Kingdom
A. Murphy School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Queen’s University
Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
Mark W.D. Nielsen Materials and Structures Research Centre, Department of
Mechanical Engineering,University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
Andrew T. Rhead Materials and Structures Research Centre, Department of
Mechanical Engineering,University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
Constantinos Soutis School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering and
the Aerospace Research Institute, University of Manchester, Manchester, United
Kingdom
Ramesh Talreja Department of Aerospace Engineering, Department of Materials
ScienceandEngineering,TexasA&MUniversity,CollegeStation,TX,UnitedStates
R.S. Thomson Advanced Composite Structures Australia, Port Melbourne, VIC,
Australia
M. Waimer German Aerospace Center (DLR),Stuttgart, Germany
S. Waite Senior Expert e Materials, Certification Directorate, EASA, Cologne,
Germany
ZhangmingWu SchoolofMechanicalEngineering&Mechanics,NingboUniver-
sity,China;School ofEngineering, CardiffUniversity, Cardiff, United Kingdom
Preface
Polymer composites are increasingly used in aerospace applications because of their
excellent strength and durability compared to weight. The revised edition of this
book summarizes the latest research and developments on the design, manufacture,
and performance of composite components for aerospace structures. It provides
detailed discussion on the design, modeling, and analysis of conventional and
advanced polymer composites with anin-depthunderstandingofmechanical proper-
ties and long-term performance, such as strength, stiffness, impact, blast resistance,
and fatigue. The book features additional chapters on aircraft-specific topics such as
lightning strike protection, damage tolerance, and airworthiness.
Partoneincludeschaptersonthemodeling,structure,andbehaviorof2Dand3D
woven composites; the manufacture processes used for composite materials and
components; buckling and compressive strength of laminates; and manufacturing
defects in composite materials. Part two discusses aspects of composite performance
in aerospace structural design, including chapters on modeling stiffness and strength
ofstructuralelements;fatigueunderuniaxialandmultiaxialloads;fracturemechanics;
impactstrength;crashworthiness;designandfailureanalysisofboltedjoints;response
of aerospace composite to temperatures and humidity; blast response; repair; nonde-
structive evaluation of damage; structural health monitoring (SHM); airworthiness;
and certification.
Thereisgeneralacceptancethatthecurrentpracticeofdesigningadamage-tolerant
structureistotakeadvantageofcompositematerialheterogeneityandtoconfigurethe
materialsuchthatitwillwithstandcertaintypesofdamageandwillnaturallyarrestits
propagation.Yet,thisisapassiveapproachandforthisreasonitissubjecttoitsown
limitations.Ontheotherhand,thedevelopmentofSHMtechniquesforcompositesis
anemergingtechnology,whichseeminglycanprovidethemeanstoenhancereliability
andsafetybyensuringearlydetectionandmonitoringofdamage.Predictivecapabil-
ities enabling estimations of residual stiffness and strength of a composite structure
with a known state ofdamage are also emerging. It is envisioned that new strategies
fordesigningdamage-resistantand-tolerant compositestructuresmaybecomeavail-
able, if we first develop and then synergistically combine new capabilities enabling
in-service damage detection and characterization, health monitoring, and structural
prognosis. The assurance of structural reliability of aircraft systems will greatly
enhance confidence in their safety, reduce the probability of premature failures, and
diminish the costs of operation and maintenance. The threads running through these
xiv Preface
chapterscanbedrawntogether,leadingtoanunderstandingofthestructuralbehavior
and integrity ofmodern composite structures.
Polymer Composites in the Aerospace Industry, Second Edition is an essential
referenceresourceforengineers,scientists,anddesignersworkinginthedevelopment
of composite materialsin aerospace applications.

1
Aerospace engineering
requirements in building with
composites
ConstantinosSoutis
School of Mechanical, Aerospaceand Civil Engineering and the AerospaceResearch
Institute, University of Manchester, Manchester, United kingdom
1.1 Introduction
Compositematerialshavegainedpopularity(despitetheirgenerallyhighcost)inhigh-
performanceproductsthatneedtobelightweight,yetstrongenoughtotakehighloads
such as aerospace structures (tails, wings, and fuselages), wind turbine blades, boat
construction, bicycle frames, and racing car bodies. Other uses include storage tanks
and fishing rods. Natural composites (wood and fabrics) have found applications in
aircraft from the first flight of the Wright Brothers’ Flyer 1, in North Carolina on
December17th,1903,totheplethoraofusesnowenjoyedbyman-made(engineered)
composite materials on both military and civil aircraft, in addition to more exotic
applications on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), space launchers, satellites, and
solar sails. Their adoption as a major contribution to aircraft structures followed on
fromthediscoveryofcarbonfiberattheRoyalAircraftEstablishmentatFarnborough,
UK, in1964. However, not untilthe late 1960s did these new composites start to be
applied,onademonstrationbasis,tomilitaryaircraft.Examplesofsuchdemonstrators
were trim tabs, spoilers, rudders, and doors. With increasing application and experi-
enceoftheirusecameimprovedfibersandmatrixmaterials(thermosetsandthermo-
plastics)resultinginCFRPcompositeswithimprovedmechanicalproperties,allowing
them to displace the more conventional materials,aluminum and titanium alloys, for
primary structures. In the following sections, the properties and structure of carbon
fibers are discussed together with thermoplastic and thermoset resins and the signifi-
canceoftheinterfacebetweenthefiberandthematrix(resin)thataffectperformance.
1.1.1 Carbon fiber types and properties
Highstrength,highmoduluscarbonfibersareabout5e6mmindiameterandconsist
of small crystallites of “turbostratic” graphite, one of the allotropic forms of carbon.
Thegraphitestructure consistsofhexagonallayers,inwhichthebondingiscovalent
and strong (w525kJ/mol) and there are weak Van der Waals forces (<10kJ/mol)
betweenthelayers[1,2].Thismeansthatthebasiccrystalunitsarehighlyanisotropic;
the in-plane Young’s modulus parallel to the a-axis is approximately 1000GPa and
PolymerCompositesintheAerospaceIndustry.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102679-3.00001-0
Copyright©2020ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.