Table Of ContentPollutant Transfer
and
Transport
in the
Sea
Volume I
Editor
Gunnar Kullenberg
Professor of Physical Oceanography
Institute of Physical Oceanography
University of Copenhagen
Copenhagen, Denmark
Boca Raton London New York
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Main entry under title:
Pollutant transfer and transport in the sea.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Marine pollution. 2. Ocean circulation.
I. Kullenberg, Gunnar.
GC1085.P63 628.1’686162 81-4500
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ISBN 0-8493-5602-4 (v. 2)
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PREFACE
The distribution of pollutants in the sea is influenced by physical, chemical, and
biological transfer processes. These processes interact, and in order to understand the
pollution problems and implications for the marine environment it is necessary to take
this into account. The aim of this book is therefore to give a presentation of various
physical, chemical, and biological transfer processes which includes an account of our
present understanding of relevant aspects of the marine systems, discussions of the
state of the art as regards parametrization and modeling of transfer processes, and an
account of applications to some specific examples.
The subject areas are covered by different authors and the editor has not attempted
to really integrate the various chapters. Rather, the aim has been to cover those subject
areas which we now consider essential for the transfer and transport of pollutants in
the marine environment, obviously without claiming complete coverage. The basic
message is that a proper understanding of the transfer of pollutants in the marine
environment requires an interdisciplinary approach and due consideration of physics,
chemistry, biology, and geology.
The individual chapters by and large stand on their own. A list of notations has
been included in the individual chapters when required, but it should be noted that all
notations have not been unified. That was simply not feasible.
The first two chapters of Volume I deal with physical processes in the ocean and
predictive modeling of transfer of pollutants. Chapter I is an attempt to present recent
ideas and observations of the physical conditions in the ocean thought to be relevant
to the pollution problem in general. Chapter 3 gives a very brief account of techniques
commonly used to investigate experimentally the physical spreading of pollutants on
small to mesoscales. Chapter 4 gives an account of the air-sea exchange of pollutants,
where much progress has been made in recent years.
Processes and transfer related to biological conditions, suspended matter, and sedi-
ments are considered in Volume II, Chapters 1, 2, and 3. In all these subject areas the
research is moving fast and several new results are presented here.
In Chapter 4 estuaries and fjords are discussed separately since these coastal zones
are considered to be of special interest. Likewise in Chapter 5 many aspects of the
spreading of oil from oil spills are considered, including processes and modeling with
a discussion of findings from several recent spills, since oil spills constitute a serious
problem in many areas. It is hoped that this publication will stimulate discussions and
interdisciplinary research relevant to pollution problems as well as serve as an educa-
tional reference book.
G. Kullenberg
THE EDITOR
Gunnar E.B. Kullenberg received a Ph.D. in Oceanography from Goteborg University,
Gbteborg, Sweden, in 1967.
Since completion of his doctoral work, he has held positions as Associate Professor
of Oceanography at the Institute of Physical Oceanography, University of Copen-
hagen, 1968-1977; Professor of Oceanography at Goteborg University, 1977-1979; and
his current position since 1979, Professor of Physical Oceanography, Institute of Phys-
ical Oceanography, University of Copenhagen.
Dr. Kullenberg's main research interests include turbulent mixing, air-sea interac-
tion, optical oceanography, problems related to marine pollution, and coupling be-
tween physical and biological processes.
His participation in several international programs has led to work not only in north-
ern European waters but also in the Mediterranean, central and eastern subtropical
Atlantic, Southern, and Pacific Oceans.
Approximately 50 papers have been published since 1968, including review papers
and presentations at several international symposia and workshops.
Dr. Kullenberg is engaged in the following international organizations: ICES (Inter-
national Council for the Exploration of the Sea), SCOR,IAPSO (International Asso-
ciation for the Physical Sciences of the Ocean), GESAMP (the U.N. Technical Agen-
cies Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution), and in the
work of some U.N. Agencies directly. He is chairman of the joint ICES and SCOR
WG on the study of the pollution of the Baltic, chairman of ICES Advisory Council
on Marine Pollution, and chairman of the GESAMP WG on the health of the ocean.
He is engaged in the IAPSO Committee on dispersion problems and inthe WG on
ocean optics. In addition to these international engagements, he is involved in the work
of Danish and Swedish national committees including the subcommittee on earth sci-
ences of the Swedish Natural Science Council.
CONTRIBUTORS
R. Chester, Ph.D. Stephen P. Murray, Ph.D.
Reader in Oceanography Assistant Director and Professor
Department of Oceanography Coastal Studies Institute
University of Liverpool Louisiana State University
Liverpool, England Baton Rouge, Louisiana
E. K. Duursma, D. Sc.
Maarten Smies
Director
Environmental Toxicologist
Delta Institute For Hydrobiological
Shell International Research
Research
Maatschappij BV
Yerseke, The Netherlands
Group Toxicology Division
The Hague, The Netherlands
Scott W. Fowler, Ph.D.
Head, Biology Section
International Laboratory of Marine Dr. G. C. van Dam
Radioactivity/ IAEA Head of Physics Division
Musee Oceanographique State Public Works
Principality of Monaco Directorate of Water Management and
Research
Herman G. Gade, D. Philos. The Hague, The Netherlands
Head, Department of Oceanography
Geophysical Institute
University of Bergen Michael Waldichuk, Ph.D.
Bergen, Norway Senior Scientist
Pacific Environment Institute
Gunnar Kullenberg, D.Sc. Fisheries and Marine Service
Professor of Physical Oceanography Canada Department of Fisheries and
Institute of Physical Oceanography the Environment
University of Copenhagen West Vancouver, B.C.
Copenhagen, Denmark Canada
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Volume I
Chapter 1
Physical Processes ......................................................... 1
Gunnar Kullenberg
Chapter 2
Models of Dispersion ...................................................... 91
Gerrit C. van Dam
Chapter 3
Experimental Techniques ................................................. 161
Gunnar Kullenberg
Chapter 4
Air-Sea Exchange of Pollutants ............................................ 177
Michael Waldichuk
Index .................................................................. 219
Volume II
Chapter 1
Biological Transfer and Transport Processes ................................... 1
Scott W. Fowler
Chapter 2
The Concentration, Mineralogy, and Chemistry of Total Suspended Matter in Sea
Water ...................................................................6 7
R. Chester
Chapter 3
Sediments and Transfer at and in the Bottom Interfacial Layer .................. 101
E. K. Duursma and M. Smies
Chapter 4
Estuaries and Fjords ..................................................... 141
Herman G. Gade
Chapter 5
The Effects of Weather Systems, Currents, and Coastal Processes on Major Oil Spills
at Sea .................................................................. 169
Stephen P. Murray
Index .................................................................. 229
Volume I
Chapter 1
PHYSICAL PROCESSES
Gunnar Kullenberg
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction ........................................................ 2
II. Characteristics of the Motion .......................................... 6
A. Mesoscale Fluctuations ......................................... 8
B. Inertial and Tidal Waves ....................................... 11
C. Small-Scale Motion ........................................... 12
D. Vertical Motion ............................................... 14
E. Fronts ....................................................... 16
III. Features of the General Circulation .................................... 18
A. Upper Layer ................................................. 18
B. Deep Water Circulation ........................................ 19
IV. Semi-Enclosed Seas ................................................. 21
A. The Baltic Sea ................................................ 23
B. Mediterranean Seas ........................................... 23
V. Features of the Distribution of Properties in the Ocean .................... 24
A. Vertical Distributions of Salinity and Temperature ................. 24
B. Vertical Velocity Distributions .................................. 27
C. Vertical Distributions of Contaminants ........................... 27
D. Suspended Matter ............................................. 28
E. Horizontal Distributions ....................................... 34
VI. Processes Influencing the S, T Distributions ............................. 35
A. Vertical ..................................................... 35
B. Horizontal ................................................... 37
VII. General Equations, Parameters, and Scaling ........................... .40
A. General Equations ........................................... .40
B. Quantification of the Effect of Fluctuations ...................... .42
C. Scaling Approaches and Parameters ............................ .44
D. Boundary Layers and Stability Considerations .................... .47
VIII. Processes Influencing the Motion ...................................... 51
A. Shelf Areas .................................................. 51
B. Coastal Boundary Layer ....................................... 57
C. The Open Ocean .............................................. 58
IX. The Magnitude of Mixing Coefficients ................................. 59
A. Vertical Mixing ............................................... 59
B. Horizontal Mixing ............................................ 64
C. Ratio of Vertical to Horizontal Mixing ........................... 67
2 Pollutant Transfer and Transport in the Sea
X. Energy Sources and Mixing Processes .................................. 69
XI. Parameterization of the Mixing ....................................... 73
XII. Concluding Remarks ................................................ 78
Notations ................................................................ 80
References ............................................................... 81
I. INTRODUCTION
The physical transport and transfer of pollutants is determined by the motion in the
sea. The motion covers a very large range of scales, from the ocean-wide circulation
to molecular motion, distributed over a more or less continuous spectrum (see Figure
1). The spreading, or dispersion, of a passive contaminant is governed by two classes
of processes; namely, advection and mixing, sometimes also called diffusion. The ad-
vection, i.e., the average velocity over some space or time scale, is caused by relatively
large-scale water movements transporting the given property and thus effecting a local
change in concentration. The mixing is governed by comparatively small-scale random
movements which give rise to a local exchange of the given property without causing
any net transport of water. The combined effect of mixing (turbulent diffusion) and
advection is here called dispersion.
The theoretical treatment of mixing attempts to relate all the mixing except the part
caused by molecular movements (molecular diffusion) to the field of motion in the
sea. In order to be able to do this, a detailed knowledge of the field of motion over
the complete range of scales is required. At the present this knowledge cannot be ob-
tained practically by means of observations at all scales, and our understanding of the
dynamics of the motion is not good enough to permit a deduction of the whole field
of motion from observations covering a limited range of scales. Usually it is necessary
to rely on averaging procedures whereby a mean current field is defined by the aver-
aging time or space scale which is appropriate for the particular problem.
The definition of a mean and a fluctuating part of the motion requires a separation
between the mean and the fluctuating part which will depend to some degree upon the
question at hand. In mixing considerations one is often concerned with the effects of
small-scale motion, and the fluctuating part may be defined by the scales of motion
which contribute significantly to the mean square shear or dissipation scales.
Depending upon the choice of averaging scale, different components of motion
(e.g., tidal, meteorological, seasonal) are included in the mean current. The mean cur-
rent causes advection of the contaminated fluid volume as a whole. The smaller scales
perturb the mean motion in a more or less random way. There are different ways of
expressing the effect of those scales on the spreading of the contaminant, i.e., to par-
ameterize the mixing or diffusion process. The most common approach is to use effec-
tive turbulent exchange coefficients (or eddy diffusion coefficients) analogous to the
molecular diffusion coefficients. This is a very crude approach which, however, often
has to be relied upon for practical reasons. An alternative approach is to use more
sophisticated models of turbulence to close the system of equations. 12 This requires
an insight into the characteristics of the fluctuating random motion in the sea which
is only gradually being obtained.
Volume I 3
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FIGURE I. (A) Distributions of oceanic
motion as function of frequency (or pe-
riod). Eulerian horizontal kinetic energy
full drawn at 5 I I m depth, dashed at 1013
m depth in the western North Atlantic.
(From Fofonoff, N. P., Ref. 68-72,
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics, Program,
Course Lectures and Seminars, Vol. I,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
Woods Hole, Mass., 1968. With permis-
sion.) (B) Example of kinetic energy den-
sity spectrum from the central North At·
!antic. (From Gould, W. J., Schmitz, W.
J., Jr., and Wunsch, C., Deep Sea Res.,
21,911,1974. With permission.)
