Table Of ContentEDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Allen J. Edwards, Series Editor
Department of Psychology
Southwest Missouri State University
Springfield, Missouri
Phillip S. Strain, Thomas P. Cooke, and Tony Apolloni. Teaching
Exceptional Children: Assessing and Modifying Social Behavior
Donald E. P. Smith and others. A Technology of Reading and
Writing (in four volumes).
Vol. 7. Learning to Read and Write: A Task Analysis (by Donald
E. P. Smith)
Vol. 2. Criterion-Referenced Tests for Reading and Writing (by
Judith M. Smith, Donald E. P. Smith, and James R. Brink)
Joel R. Levin and Vernon L. Allen (eds.). Cognitive Learning in
Children: Theories and Strategies
Vernon L.Allen (ed.). Children as Teachers: Theory and Research
on Tutoring
Gilbert R. Austin. Early Childhood Education: An International
Perspective
Antonio Simöes (ed.). The Bilingual Child: Research and Anal
ysis of Existing Educational Themes
Erness Bright Brody and Nathan Brody. Intelligence: Nature,
Determinants, and Consequences
Samuel Ball (ed.). Motivation in Education
J. Nina Lieberman. Playfulness: Its Relationship to Imagination
and Creativity
In preparation:
Donald E. P. Smith and others. A Technology of Reading and
Writing (in four volumes).
Vol. 3. The Adaptive Classroom (by Donald E. P. Smith)
Vol. 4. Preparing Instructional Tasks (by Judith M. Smith)
Harry Horn, Jr. (ed.). Psychological Processes in Early Education
Harvey Lesser. Television and the Preschool Child: A Psycho
logical Theory of Instruction and Curriculum Development
Donald J. Treffinger, J. Kent Davis, and Richard E. Ripple (eds.).
Handbook on Teaching Educational Psychology
Playfulness
Its Relationship to
Imagination and Creativity
J. NINA LIEBERMAN
School of Education
Brooklyn College
Brooklyn, New York
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ACADEMIC PRESS New York San Francisco London 1977
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United Kingdom Edition published by
ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (LONDON) LTD.
24/28 Oval Road. London NW1
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Lieberman, Josef a Nina, Date
Playfulness.
(Educational psychology series)
Bibliography: p.
1. Play. 2. Imagination. 3. Creative ability.
I. Title.
BF717.L53 153.3 76-42975
ISBN 0-12-449450-1
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
To all who know how hard it is to play
Preface
Anyone interested in play has had to face the difficulty of capturing what it
is. In this book, I deal with this question by asking how we play and by
presenting data that identify a concept I labeled playfulness. By this I mean the
lightheartedness that we find as a quality of play in the young child's activities
and, later on, as the combinatorial play essential to imagination and creativity. I,
therefore, see playfulness as behavior that goes beyond the childhood years; and,
through its component parts of sense of humor, manifest joy, and spontaneity, it
has major implications for childrearing practices, educational planning, career
choices, and leisure pursuits. I present this point of view as my own formulation,
while also building on existing research and theory and indicating how these data
support my position.
My treatment of the subject starts with an historical perspective. Going
beyond psychological source materials, it sets the stage for the thrust of my
thesis, namely, that play and its quintessence, playfulness, arises in familiar
physical settings or when the individual has the pertinent facts; that imagination
enters by twisting those facts into different combinations, not unlike the
operation of a kaleidoscope; and that the end product may, by the quality of its
uniqueness, deserve the label "creative." The major portion of the book is
devoted to a discussion of the play element in play, subdivided into sense of
humor, manifest joy, and spontaneity. The approach is within a developmental
framework and the setting is, to a large extent, the classroom. My own studies
and the analysis of the research by others are based on the theoretical frame
work of Piaget and Berlyne; however, questions are raised about the ludic
element as postulated by Piaget and the exploratory dimension as expounded by
Berlyne. I emphasize a continuation of the ludic element in adolescent and adult
thought, and I stress the differentiation between play and exploratory behavior
based on familiar versus novel aspects in the factual givens—it is at that point
that playfulness operates. My theoretical model indicates the role of playfulness
in cognitive, affective, and social functioning, and specifically relates these links
to imagination and creativity.
Because of the book's focus on playfulness as behavior at later stages of
XI
XII Preface
development, it shares with life-span psychology the stress on the influence of
ecological variables on behavior. Sex differences, level of intelligence, and social
class are some of the variables considered in relation to playfulness. In a wider
framework, this specific view of play, with its emphasis on the interaction
between developmental and historical time, relates to the fields of education and
sociology. This relation is reflected in the discussion of everyday applications of
playfulness in an individual's life cycle, which take us from the home to the
school, to career choices, to on-the-job satisfaction, and, finally, to the use of
leisure.
This book was written for professionals and advanced students in a number of
disciplines. It will be of interest to developmental and educational psychologists
as well as to educators in general and to graduate students. Colleagues in
sociology and social work should find valuable information about the Zeitgeist,
the influence of cohorts, and the need for a positive approach in a group setting.
Similarly, it will be helpful to psychotherapists since playfulness stresses joy,
gentle humor, and spontaneity, all ingredients that contribute to the optimal
functioning of the individual. In general, I hope the book will be not only a
useful but also an enjoyable experience for its readers.
Acknowledgments
It is.difficult to know where to begin with acknowledgments for a book such
as this, which reflects my thinking over a decade and a half. Admittedly, one's
growth is constantly affected by people around one and by one's successive
experiences. To the extent that I am aware of these influences, these are
acknowledged in this collective statement. There are, however, persons and
experiences that call for special mention because of their decisive input at crucial
turning points in my career.
Since I am a developmental ist by conviction and a history buff by avocation,
I should like to record the influence of significant others in chronological order.
When I first entertained the notion of doing my dissertation research on play
and then formulated the concept of playfulness in play, Millie C. Almy not only
encouraged me in my pursuit of what, at times, seemed a most elusive goal but
predicted that playfulness would keep me busy at work for the rest of my life!
When, at one of those crucial turning points, I was ready to give up on play, not
only she but also Robert L. Thomdike led me back to my original commitment.
There was one other person who, although not directly involved in my research
efforts, gave me unwavering support in my professional endeavors. Gertrude P.
Driscoll was not only a teacher and a colleague but also a friend whose wisdom,
personal integrity, and warmth will continue to be an inspiration to me.
My own studies would not have been possible without the generous and
fruitful cooperation of school officials and teachers, at both the kindergarten
and secondary school levels. Among them, I want to single out Elsa Barnouw of
the Gardens Nursery School and Kindergarten, Ruth Stronsky of the Israel
Chipkin School, and Josephine A. Bliss of the Riverside Nursery School and
Kindergarten, directors of their respective schools. At the secondary level, E. J.
Cipolaro, Principal of the Mount Vernon High School, Mount Vernon, David
Eliach, Principal of the Flatbush Yeshiva High School in Brooklyn, and Seymour
Glassman of Ditmas Junior High School in Brooklyn were most helpful in
allowing me to work with the teachers at their schools. Hyman Sardy of
Brooklyn College, who acted as statistical consultant in the high school study,
and Judith Garretsen, who assisted in the data analysis, were enthusiastic in their
XIII
XIV Acknowledgments
approach to the project and made many helpful suggestions. The studies were
supported, in part, by three separate grants from the National Institute of
Mental Health. The first was a Public Health Service fellowship MH-18,
219-01ΑΊ; the other two were Public Health Small Grants MH 13152-01 and
MH 14426-01.
Throughout the years, I have been stimulated and encouraged by the writings
of Daniel Berlyne, John Feldhusen, Nathan Kogan, Jerome L. Singer, and Brian
Sutton-Smith, as well as by helpful personal exchanges of views I had with them.
I was also fortunate in finding understanding and support from the editors at
Academic Press.
Last but not least, I want to thank my husband, Meyer F. Lieberman, for his
patience and forbearance during the trials and tribulations that were also part of
writing this book. It was also he who, in tandem with our cat Ruby, pointed out
the playful aspects in the act of writing so that in the end I allowed myself to
enjoy working on the project.
Das Unbeschreibliche,
Hier ist's getan.
[Faust, Pt. 2]
I
Introduction
PLAY-I IMAGINATION-CREATIVITY
A General Overview of Their Role in Psychological Research
It seems appropriate to start any discussion of play, imagination, and cre
ativity with the question about the importance of the topics. Naturally, this
cannot be done without referring to the concrete behavior that they denote. In a
society like ours, based on the Protestant work ethic, can we allow ourselves the
luxury of focusing on play? Similarly, in our pragmatically oriented culture,
what role is there for imagination, which may seem only an idle passing of time,
with no immediate tangible results? And lastly, in our democratically oriented
society, what place is there for recognition of unique contributions or for the
individual who does not fit the average mold?
We could, of course, refer to play as child's work and thereby gain respect
ability for our topic and, historically, there is precedent for such an interpreta
tion (Dewey, 1913; Froebel, 1895b; Griffiths, 1935; Pestalozzi, 1898; Rousseau,
1964). We could defend our interest in imagination by pointing out the real-life
value of role playing in the young child, of vocational decision-making by way of
fantasizing in the adolescent, and of working through hostility by imaginary
exploits and confrontations in the adult. And, again, there is concrete evidence
for imagination aiding these aspects of behavior (Erikson, 1940; Jersild, Markey,
& Jersild, 1933; Jones, 1968; Markey, 1935; Piaget, 1945; Singer, 1966;
Symonds, 1942). Creativity, too, could be viewed from its lowest common
denominator, and a case can be made that each and every one of us is creative to
the extent that we discover things new to us, make things that we never made
before, and bring our very own interpretation to the world around us. For this
case, too, chapter and verse can be cited (Barron, 1969; Getzels & Jackson,
1962; Guilford, 1950, 1968; Jackson & Messick, 1965; Torrance, 1962; Wallach
ÄKogan, 1965).
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