Plant Nutrients in Desert Environments

112 Pages·1993·4.55 MB·English

by  Prof. Dr. Arden D. Day

Adaptations ofD esert Organisms
Edited by J. L. Cloudsley-Thompson
Volumes already published
Ecophysiology of the Camelidae and Desert Ruminants
Edited by R. T. Wilson (1989)
Ecophysiology of Desert Arthropods and Reptiles
Edited by J. L. Cloudsley-Thompson (1991)
Plant Nutrients in Desert Environments
Edited by A. Day and K. Ludeke (1993)
Volumes in preparation
Seed Germination in Desert Plants
Edited by Y. Gutterman (1993)
Arden D. Day Kenneth L. Ludeke
Plant Nutrients
in Desert Environments
With 22 Figures
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg New York
London Paris Tokyo
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Budapest
Prof. Dr. Arden D. Day
2909 East Seneca St.
Thcson, Arizona 85716, USA
Professor emeritus of Plant Sciences, Department of Plant Sciences,
College of Agriculture, University of Arizona, Thcson, Arizona 85721, USA
Dr. Kenneth L. Ludeke
Star Route 2, Box 459R
Buckeye, Arizona 85326, USA
Agronomist, Ludeke Corporation, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
Cover illustration: photograph by J. L. Cloudsley-Thompson
ISBN-13:978-3-642-77654-0 e-ISBN-13:978-3-642-77652-6
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-77652-6
Library of Congress Cataloging·in·Publication Data. Day, A. D., Plant nutrients in desert en
vironments / Arden D. Day and Kenneth L. Ludeke. p. cm. - (Adaptations of desert
organisms) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13:97S-3-642-77654-0
1. Desert plants - Nutrition. 2. Plant nutrients. 3. Desert plants -
Ecology. 1. Ludeke, Kenneth L. II. Title. III. Series. QK93S.D4D39 1992
631.S'l1'09154-dc20 92-32705 CIP
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© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1993
Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 1993
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absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws
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Dedication and Acknowledgments
A. D. Day, Ph. D. and K. L. Ludeke, Ph. D. dedicate Plant Nutri
ents in Desert Environments to their wives, Judith C. Day and
Cynthia K. Ludeke. The continuous encouragement, support,
and understanding of these two outstanding women made it
possible for the authors to write this book. Sincere thanks are
given to Cynthia L. Eisenberger, who undertook the painstaking
task of typing, proofing, and preparing the manuscript for publi
cation, with diligence and professionalism. Appreciation is ex
tended to Grant Heilman Photography, Inc. for providing ex
cellent photographs. To all other individuals who have assisted in
any way with the preparation, review, and publication of this
book, the authors are very grateful.
Contents
1 Introduction ............................... . 1
2 Plant Nutrients ............................. . 3
2.1 Essential Plant Nutrient Elements ............ . 3
2.1.1 Major Elements ............................ . 4
2.1.2 Minor Elements ............................ . 4
2.2 Effects of Plant Nutrient Elements on Plants .. . 5
2.2.1 Nitrogen .................................. . 5
2.2.2 Phosphorus ................................ . 6
2.2.3 Potassium ................................. . 6
2.2.4 Minor Elements ............................ . 7
3 Soil Materials .............................. . 9
4 Organic Soil Materials ...................... . 13
4.1 Functions ................................. . 13
4.2 Composition ............................... . 14
4.3 Sources ................................... . 14
4.4 Management ............................... . 15
4.5 Maintenance ............................... . 17
5 Soil Moisture .............................. . 19
5.1 Field Capacity ............................. . 19
5.2 Permanent-Wilting Percentage ................ . 20
5.3 Movement of Water ......................... . 20
5.3.1 Gravitational Water ......................... . 20
5.3.2 Capillary Water ............................ . 21
5.3.3 Water Vapor ............................... . 22
6 Soil Aeration .............................. . 23
6.1 Composition of Soil Air .................... . 24
6.2 Soil Aeration and Plant Growth .............. . 25
7 Exchangeable Bases ......................... . 27
7.1 Exchangeable Bases and Plant Nutrition ....... . 27
VIII Contents
8 Soil Acidity 31
9 Soil Alkalinity .............................. 35
10 Nitrogen as a Plant Nutrient .................. 39
10.1 Nitrogen in Soils ............................ 39
10.2 Nitrogen in Plants ........................... 40
10.3 Forms of Nitrogen Utilized by Plants .......... 42
11 Phosphorus as a Plant Nutrient ............... 45
11.1 Phosphorus in Soils ......................... 45
11.2 Phosphorus in Plants ........................ 46
11.3 Forms of Phosphorus Utilized by Plants ....... 48
12 Potassium as a Plant Nutrient ................ 49
12.1 Potassium in Soils ........................... 49
12.2 Potassium in Plants .......................... 50
13 Plant Nutrients in Desert Soils ................ 53
13.1 Soils in the Yuma Subdesert .................. 53
13.2 Man's Invasion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
13.3 How Desert Soils Differ ...................... 55
13.4 Minerals in Soils ............................ 55
14 Soil Moisture in Desert Environments .......... 57
14.1 Soil Moisture Quantity ....................... 57
14.2 Soil Moisture Quality ........................ 57
15 Plant Nutrients Required for Growth .......... 61
15.1 Plant Nutrients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
15.2 Essential Elements in Plant Nutrition .......... 62
16 Plant Nutrients in Municipal Wastewater ....... 67
16.1 Municipal Wastewater Treatment .............. 67
16.2 Irrigation with Municipal Wastewater .......... 67
16.2.1 Small Grains Pasture Forage .................. 67
16.2.2 Hay from Small Grains ...................... 68
16.2.3 Grain from Small Grains ..................... 69
16.2.4 Hay from Alfalfa ............................ 70
16.2.5 Cotton ..................................... 70
16.2.6 Bermuda Grass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
16.2.7 Fertilizer Value of Municipal Wastewater ....... 72
16.3 Future Prospects ............................ 73
17 Plant Nutrients in Sewage Sludge .............. 75
17.1 Sewage Sludge 1teatment ..................... 75
Contents IX
17.2 Plant Growth Factors in Sewage Sludge ........ 75
17.3 Fertilization with Dry Sewage Sludge. . ... . .. . . . 76
17.3.1 Grass and Turf. . . . .. . . . .. . ... . . .. . . ... . .. . .. 76
17.3.2 Wheat ..................................... 76
17.3.3 Differences in Wheat Cultivars ................ 77
17.4 Fertilization with Liquid Sewage Sludge ........ 78
17.4.1 Wheat ..................................... 78
17.4.2 Response of Barley to Liquid Sewage Sludge
Loading Rates .............................. 79
17.4.3 Cotton ..................................... 80
17.4.4 Forest Land ................................. 81
17.4.5 Fertilizer Value .............................. 81
17.5 Future Prospects ............................ 81
18 Plant Growth in Desert Environments. . . .. . . .. . 83
18.1 The Dry Regions of the World ................ 83
18.2 Climatic Factors Affect Plant Growth .......... 84
18.3 Soil Fertility and Its Maintenance ............. 84
18.4 Fertilizer Use in Dry Regions ................. 86
18.5 Crop Introduction and Improvement ........... 86
19 Urban Utilization of Plant Nutrients ........... 89
19.1 Plants in the Living Environment to Lift the
Spirits of Man .............................. 89
19.2 Home Gardens Reduce Food Costs, Landscape
Homesteads, and Improve Neighborliness.. . . .. . 90
19.3 City Parks, Golf Courses, and Recreation Areas. 92
20 Plant Nutrients for Disturbed Land Reclamation 93
20.1 Classification of Disturbed Lands ............. 93
20.2 Reclamation Purposes and Alternatives ......... 94
20.3 Spoil Replacement and Revegetation Techniques. 94
20.4 Coal Mine Reclamation in Desert Areas ........ 95
20.5 Vegetation Adaptability ...................... 96
21 Desert Environments Offer an Outstanding
Future Potential ............................. 99
21.1 Technology Unlocks Cropland Productivity ..... 99
21.2 Future Agricultural Research .................. 100
21.3 Gardening for Food and Fun ................. 100
21.4 Living on a Few Acres ....................... 101
21.5 Desert Environments Attract People ........... 102
Glossary of Agronomic Terms.. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... 105
References ........................................ 115
x
Contents
Figure Index
Fig. 1. Commercial agriculture in the desert area
in Colorado, USA ........................ . 2
Fig. 2. Mixed vegetables grown in a small farm garden 8
Fig. 3. A sand dune complex at the foot of mountains
in Sangre de Christo, Colorado, USA ....... . 10
Fig. 4. Plowing under sorghum stubble with a seven-
bottom moldboard plow .................. . 16
Fig. 5. Furrow irrigation in Texas, USA ............ . 21
Fig. 6. An earthworm and earthworm castings
in a fertile organic soil .................... . 24
Fig. 7. Orange trees in Florida, USA
growing in a fertile sandy loam soil ........ . 28
Fig. 8. Planting corn and applying commercial
fertilizers and soil amendments in the USA ... 32
Fig. 9. Alkaline soil deposits in a desert area
in California, USA ....................... . 36
Fig. 10. A stunted ear of corn caused by an extreme
soil nitrogen deficiency .................... . 42
Fig. 11. Surface application of inorganic fertilizer
in Arizona, USA ......................... . 47
Fig. 12. Potassium-deficient corn in the USA ........ . 50
Fig. 13. Native vegetation in a desert area
in Arizona, USA ......................... . 56
Fig. 14. The Rio Grande River in Texas, USA ....... . 58
Fig. 15. Side-dressing corn with anhydrous ammonia
nitrogen fertilizer in the USA .............. . 65
Fig. 16. Beef cattle grazing on an irrigated pasture
in a desert area in Colorado, USA .......... . 72
Fig. 17. Injection of liquid municipal sewage sludge
into agricultural soil in the USA ........... . 82
Fig. 18. Young citrus trees growing in a desert area
in Arizona, USA ......................... . 87
Fig. 19. An outstanding home in a desert area
in California, USA ....................... . 91
Fig. 20. Copper mine tailings that have been contoured
to prevent wind erosion in Arizona, USA .... 97
Fig. 21. A irrigated family farm in a desert area
in the southwestern USA .................. . 103
Fig. 22. A modern city established in a desert
environment in the southwestern USA ....... 103
1 Introduction
Plant nutrients are found in a relatively thin layer of soil materials that
covers all of the continents of the entire world. These plant nutrients
provide the necessary food, clothing, and shelter for human existence. As
the population of the world increases, the plant nutrients in desert environ
ments become more important for the survival of mankind. The primary
plant nutrients are the essential mineral elements in soil materials required
for optimum plant growth (Miller and Turk 1943).
The important factors in the transformation of rock into soil materials
and plant nutrients are climate, vegetation, topography, parent material,
gravity, and time. Since desert regions have a dryer climate than humid
areas, the formation of soil materials and plant nutrients in desert environ
ments proceeds more slowly than does the formation of soil materials and
plant nutrients in humid environments. Soil materials in desert environ
ments contain less organic matter than soil materials in humid environments
(Fuller 1975a).
The soil materials that cover the continents of the world continually
change under the forces of climate. They were slowly formed through the
passing of time as a result of gravitation, meteorologic, geologic, and
biologic action on rock. The soil sustains and continually renews life.
Animal and plant residues decay into simpler constituents and as a result,
nutrient elements are made available for new life in a perpetual cycle.
Soil composition differs like the plants and animals differ in physical and
chemical properties. Soils have easily recognizable physical and chemical
characteristics which classify them into distinct bodies in nature. They
acquire their individual properties from various combined forces which act
upon them. This is part of the reason that desert soils differ from soils from
other climatic zones. There is an increasing migration of people into the arid
and semi-arid climates of the world. The rapid development of these arid
and semi-arid lands for food production, home sites, and metropolitan uses,
justifies describing the soils in desert environments. Exotic fruits and off
season vegetables are a part of almost every household. Desert soils easily
produce these valuable food products. Homeowners and residents who
relocate from harsh, colder climates search for help in the establishment of a
living foothold in a new and fragile environment. To successfully grow
plants every year, man must know comparatively more about arid climate