Places of Refuge for Ships in Distress : Problems and Methods of Resolution

428 Pages·2012·2.59 MB·English

by  Morrison, Anthony

Places of Refuge for Ships in Distress
Legal Aspects of Sustainable
Development
Series Editor
David Freestone
This series publishes work on all aspects of the international legal dimensions of
the concept of sustainable development. Its aim is to publish important works
of scholarship on a range of relevant issues including conservation of natural
resources, climate change, biodiversity loss and the role of international agreements,
international organizations and state practice.
VOLUME 12
The titles published in this series are listed at brill.nl/lasd
Places of Refuge for Ships in Distress
Problems and Methods of Resolution
By
Anthony P. Morrison
LEIDEN • BOSTON
2012
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Morrison, Anthony P.
 Places of refuge for ships in distress : problems and methods of resolution / by Anthony P.
Morrison.
  p. cm. -- (Legal aspects of sustainable development ; 12)
 Includes bibliographical references and index.
 ISBN 978-90-04-21889-5 (hardback : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-90-04-21888-8 (e-book) 1. Harbors
of refuge. 2. Harbors--Law and legislation. 3. Harbors--Safety regulations. 4. Shipping--Safety
measures. 5. Marine pollution--Law and legislation. 6. Maritime law. I. Title.
 K4198.M67 2012
 343.09’62--dc23
2012014907
This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters
covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the
humanities. For more information, please see www.brill.nl/brill-typeface.
ISSN 1875-0923
ISBN 978 90 04 21889 5 (hardback)
ISBN 978 90 04 21888 8 (e-book)
Copyright 2012 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.
Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing,
IDC Publishers and Martinus Nijhofff Publishers.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in
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Fees are subject to change.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Contents
Series Editor’s Preface ..................................................................................................................xi
Foreword .......................................................................................................................................xiii
Acknowledgements .....................................................................................................................xv
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................xvii
Chapter One Introduction and Overview .............................................................................1
Chapter Two The Places of Refuge Problem ........................................................................9
Introduction .................................................................................................................................9
What is a Place of Refuge? ........................................................................................................9
Customary Rights of Ships in Distress ................................................................................12
Changes to the Custom of Granting Refuge to Ships in Distress .................................14
Changes to the Shipping Industry ...................................................................................17
Growth of Environmental Consciousness and the Development
 of International Environmental Law .........................................................................21
Changes to International Maritime Law .......................................................................22
Changes to Salvage Law and the Salvage Industry......................................................24
Erika, Castor and Prestige........................................................................................................28
The Erika ................................................................................................................................28
The Castor ..............................................................................................................................32
The Prestige ...........................................................................................................................34
Efffects of Erika, Castor and Prestige on Places of Refuge ..........................................36
Interests Involved in the Places of Refuge Problem ........................................................38
Interests Concerned with Completion of Marine Adventure .................................38
Charterers .........................................................................................................................38
Shipowners .......................................................................................................................39
Cargo Owners...................................................................................................................41
Insurers of the Ship ........................................................................................................41
Cargo Insurers ..................................................................................................................42
Master and Crew .............................................................................................................43
Salvors ................................................................................................................................43
Interests Concerned with Preservation of the Marine
 and Coastal Environment .............................................................................................44
Coastal States ...................................................................................................................44
Environmental Pressure Groups .................................................................................45
Media .................................................................................................................................46
vi Contents
Shipping Industry Regulators ...........................................................................................46
Flag States .........................................................................................................................47
Port States .........................................................................................................................48
Classifijication Societies ..................................................................................................49
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................50
Chapter Three General Access to Ports in International Law .....................................53
Introduction ...............................................................................................................................53
Sovereignty over Internal Waters .........................................................................................53
Access to Ports ...........................................................................................................................56
Bilateral Treaties...................................................................................................................56
Multilateral Conventions ...................................................................................................58
Convention and Statute on the International Regime of Maritime
 Ports, 1923 ........................................................................................................................58
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 ..............................................61
Other Multilateral Conventions .......................................................................................62
Evidence of Custom from Judicial Decisions and National Legislation ....................64
Decisions of International Tribunals ..............................................................................64
National Legislation and Decisions of National Courts ............................................66
Australia .................................................................................................................................66
United States of America ...................................................................................................67
Canada ....................................................................................................................................69
United Kingdom ...................................................................................................................70
European Union ...................................................................................................................71
Opinions of International Jurists ..........................................................................................72
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................72
Chapter Four Access to Ports by Ships in Distress in International Law .................75
Introduction ...............................................................................................................................75
What is Meant by ‘Port’ and ‘Distress’? ...............................................................................76
Evidence of Custom from Early Trade Relations between Maritime States .............77
Evidence of Custom from Bilateral Treaties ......................................................................80
Bilateral Treaties of Great Britain and the United States of America ....................82
Bilateral Treaties of the Former British Empire ...........................................................90
Bilateral Treaties of Other States .....................................................................................94
Efffect of Bilateral Treaties on Customary International Law...................................94
Ships in Distress under Multilateral Conventions ...........................................................96
Convention and Statute on the International Regime of Maritime
 Ports 1923 .........................................................................................................................96
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 ...........................................100
International Convention on Salvage 1989 .................................................................104
International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response
 and Cooperation 1990 .................................................................................................106
Contents vii
International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas
 in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties 1973 ................................................................106
Evidence of Custom from Judicial Decisions .................................................................107
Decisions of International Arbitral Bodies ................................................................108
Decisions of the United States Courts .........................................................................112
Decisions of the English Courts ....................................................................................115
Decisions of the Canadian Courts ................................................................................117
Decisions of the Netherlands Courts ...........................................................................120
Decisions of the Irish Courts .........................................................................................122
State Practice ...........................................................................................................................123
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................125
Chapter Five International Responses to Places of Refuge Problem .....................127
Introduction ............................................................................................................................127
Places of Refuge as an International Problem ...............................................................128
Actions on Places of Refuge by the International Maritime Organisation ............130
IMO Guidelines on Places of Refuge for Ships in Need of Assistance ...........................144
Structure of the IMO Guidelines ....................................................................................146
General Provisions ............................................................................................................146
Actions Required by the Master and/or Salvors .......................................................151
Actions Expected of Coastal States ..............................................................................153
Actions of IMO on Places of Refuge after Adoption of IMO
 Guidelines ............................................................................................................................159
Assessment of the Guidelines .............................................................................................160
Benefijits ................................................................................................................................161
Disadvantages ....................................................................................................................163
Action on Places of Refuge by other International Organisations ...........................165
Comite Maritime International (CMI) ........................................................................166
International Association of Ports and Harbors (IAPH) ........................................169
Shipping Industry Associations ....................................................................................171
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................173
Chapter Six National Responses to Places of Refuge Problem .................................177
Introduction ............................................................................................................................177
The United Kingdom ............................................................................................................178
Legislation...........................................................................................................................179
Harbours, Docks and Piers Clauses Act 1847.........................................................179
Dangerous Vessels Act 1985 .......................................................................................180
Merchant Shipping Act 1995 .....................................................................................181
Command and Control ...................................................................................................183
International Arrangements ..........................................................................................187
Incidents involving Places of Refuge ...........................................................................188
Assessment of the United Kingdom Position on Places of Refuge ......................189
viii Contents
Australia ...................................................................................................................................191
Maritime Jurisdiction in Australia ...............................................................................192
Legislation Afffecting Places of Refuge ........................................................................193
Commonwealth Legislation ......................................................................................193
State and Northern Territory Legislation...............................................................201
Administrative Arrangements Relating to Places of Refuge .................................203
National Plan.................................................................................................................204
Guidelines on Places of Refuge ................................................................................205
State Guidelines ...........................................................................................................205
Queensland...............................................................................................................205
New South Wales ....................................................................................................207
Western Australia ....................................................................................................208
National Guidelines ....................................................................................................208
Introductory Provisions and Defijinitions ..........................................................209
Requests for Place of Refuge ................................................................................213
Decision Making Process ......................................................................................213
Management Issues ................................................................................................214
Incidents involving Places of Refuge ...........................................................................215
Daishowa Maru ........................................................................................................215
Iron Baron .................................................................................................................216
Eurydice .....................................................................................................................216
Wunma .......................................................................................................................218
Assessment of the Australian Position on Places of Refuge ..................................218
Canada ......................................................................................................................................220
Maritime Jurisdiction ......................................................................................................220
Treatment of Places of Refuge .......................................................................................221
Introductory Provisions .............................................................................................221
Authority for Directing Ships ...................................................................................222
Responsibility for Decisions and Decision Making ............................................222
Decision Making Process ...........................................................................................225
International Arrangements ..........................................................................................226
Canada/United States .................................................................................................226
Canada/France .............................................................................................................228
Canada/Denmark ........................................................................................................229
Assessment of the Canadian Position on Places of Refuge ...................................230
United States of America .....................................................................................................233
Federal Legislation on Oil Pollution and Places of Refuge ....................................233
State Legislation on Oil Pollution and Places of Refuge .........................................240
National Contingency Plan ............................................................................................244
Guidelines on Places of Refuge .....................................................................................246
Regional and Area Guidelines ..................................................................................246
National Guidelines ....................................................................................................248
Introduction .............................................................................................................248
Contents ix
Appendix 1—Incident-Specifijic Places of Refuge
 Decision-Making Process.................................................................................250
Appendix 2—Potential Stakeholders ...............................................................252
Appendix 3—Process for Pre-identifijication of
 Potential Places of Refuge ...............................................................................252
United States Coast Guard Places of Refuge Policy ............................................253
Common Features and Diffferences between NRT Guidelines
 and USCG Policy .....................................................................................................256
International Arrangements ..........................................................................................258
United States/Canada .................................................................................................258
United States/Mexico .................................................................................................259
Incidents Involving Places of Refuge ...........................................................................260
M/V Tong Cheng ............................................................................................................260
Assessment of the United States Position on Places of Refuge. ...........................261
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................264
Chapter Seven Regional Response to Places of Refuge Problem .............................267
Introduction ............................................................................................................................267
Regional Arrangements ........................................................................................................267
The Regional Approach Concept ......................................................................................268
The European Union .............................................................................................................270
The European Union’s Approach to Places of Refuge .............................................271
Other Regional Arrangements ...........................................................................................276
Bonn Agreement.................................................................................................................276
Places of Refuge under the Bonn Agreement .............................................................278
Helsinki Convention ..........................................................................................................278
Places of Refuge under the Helsinki Convention .......................................................279
Assessment of the Role of Regional Arrangements ......................................................281
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................283
Chapter Eight A Convention on Places of Refuge as a Solution ...............................285
Introduction ............................................................................................................................285
Potential of and Need for a Discrete Convention..........................................................286
CMI Draft Instrument ...........................................................................................................288
Contents of Draft Instrument ........................................................................................290
Preamble .............................................................................................................................291
Defijinitions ..........................................................................................................................291
Object and Purpose ..........................................................................................................294
Legal Obligation to Grant Access to a Place of Refuge ...........................................295
Guarantees ..........................................................................................................................297
Immunity from Liability for Granting Access and Liability for
 Refusing Access ............................................................................................................299
Reasonable Conduct ........................................................................................................301
x Contents
Plans to Accommodate Ships Seeking Assistance ...................................................301
Identifijication of Competent Authority ......................................................................302
Assessment of the CMI Draft Instrument .......................................................................302
Benefijits ................................................................................................................................302
Disadvantages ....................................................................................................................303
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................304
Chapter Nine Factors Affecting a Response to Places of Refuge Problem ...........307
Introduction ............................................................................................................................307
Improved Industry Performance .......................................................................................308
Double Hull and Ship Replacement ............................................................................309
The United States Initiatives .....................................................................................309
International Maritime Organisation Initiatives ................................................310
The European Union Initiatives ..............................................................................311
Unilateral Action by other Coastal States .............................................................312
Ship Design .........................................................................................................................313
Efffect of Double Hulls Replacement and Ship Design on Places of Refuge......313
Improved Industry Regulation ...........................................................................................316
Flag State Control .............................................................................................................317
Efffect on Places of Refuge of Actions to Improve Flag State Control .................319
Port State Control .............................................................................................................320
Efffect on Places of Refuge of Actions to Improve Port State Control .................322
Classifijication Societies ....................................................................................................323
Efffect on Places of Refuge of Actions to Improve Classifijication Societies ........326
Issues of Liability, Compensation and Limitation ........................................................326
Subject Coverage ...............................................................................................................327
Liability for Damage .........................................................................................................328
Compensation for ‘Pure Economic Loss’ ....................................................................329
Compensation for Damage to the Environment per se ..........................................331
Defences Available under International Conventions ...........................................335
Limitation of Liability......................................................................................................337
Amending IMO Guidelines .............................................................................................339
Incentives for Coastal States to Use the IMO Guidelines .............................................345
Liability for Cross Boundary Environmental Harm .....................................................347
International Obligations to Protect the Environment ..........................................348
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................350
Chapter Ten Conclusions ......................................................................................................353
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................359
Index ...............................................................................................................................................401