Pictorial Metaphor in Advertising

244 Pages·1996·8.3 MB·English

by  Charles Forceville

Pictorial Metaphor in Advertising

Over the past few decades, research on metaphor has focused almost exclusively
on its verbal and cognitive dimensions. In Pictorial Metaphor in Advertising, Charles
Forceville argues that metaphor can also occur in pictures. By using insights taken
from a range of linguistic, artistic, and cognitive perspectives, for example,
interaction and relevance theory, Forceville shows not only how metaphor can
occur in pictures, but also provides a framework within which these ‘pictorial’
metaphors can be analysed.
The theoretical insights are applied to thirty advertisements and billboards of
British, French, German, and Dutch origin. Apart from substantiating the claim
that it makes sense to talk about ‘pictorial metaphors’, the detailed analyses of
the advertisements suggest how metaphor theory can be employed as a tool in
media studies. The final chapter of this book looks at ways in which the insights
gained can be used for further research.
This book will be of interest to advanced undergraduate and graduate students of
Communication Studies, Language, and Linguistics.
Charles Forceville is Lecturer in the Department of English, also affiliated to
the Department of Comparative and Empirical Literature at the Free University
in Amsterdam.

Pictorial Metaphor in
Advertising

Charles Forceville

London and New York
First published 1996
by Routledge
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002.

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

First published in paperback 1998

© 1996 Charles Forceville
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book has been requested

ISBN 0-415-12868-4 (hbk)
ISBN 0-415-18676-5 (pbk)
ISBN 0-203-06425-9 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-20910-9 (Glassbook Format)
Contents

List of illustrations vii
Acknowledgements ix
1 Introduction 1
2 Max Black’s interaction theory of metaphor 4
Introduction 4
Max Black’s interaction theory of metaphor: a first outline 5
An evaluation of Kittay’s (1987) criticisms of Black’s theory 12
Other views held by Black 22
Summary 34
3 Towards a theory of pictorial metaphor: Relevant studies 37
Introduction 37
Wollheim (1987) 37
Hausman (1989) 41
Kennedy (1982) 53
Johns (1984) 56
Durand (1987) 57
Forceville (1988) 59
Whittock (1990) 60
Summary 64
4 Advertising: Word and image and levels of context 67
Introduction 67
The word and image advertisement text 70
Roland Barthes’ (1986/1964) three kinds of messages 71
Verbal anchoring and relaying: Franklin (1988) 74
Pictorial context 75
Levels of context 78
Summary 81
5 Communicator and addressee in the advertising message:
Relevance theory perspectives 83
Introduction 83
vi Contents
Sperber and Wilson’s ‘relevance theory’ 84
Relevance theory and Black’s interaction theory 95
Relevance theory and the analysis of advertisements and billboards 98
Tanaka (1994) 104
Summary 107
6 Pictorial metaphor in advertisements and billboards: Case studies 108
Introduction 108
Case studies: metaphors with one pictorially present term (MP1s) 109
Case studies: metaphors with two pictorially present terms (MP2s) 126
Is there a fundamental difference between MP1s and MP2s? 133
Case studies: pictorial similes 136
Discussion 145
Case studies: verbo-pictorial metaphors (VPMs) 148
More discussion 161
Summary 162
7 Individuals’ responses to three IBM billboards: An exploratory
experiment 165
Introduction 165
Background: Mick and Politi (1989) 167
Hypotheses 168
Stimulus material 168
Method 170
Participants and procedures 173
Identification of the metaphors: rating method 173
Identification of the metaphors: results 174
Interpretation of the metaphors: scoring criteria 177
Interpretation of the metaphors: results 179
Personal associations of participants 185
Further reflections on the experiment’s results 191
Summary 197
8 Closing remarks 200
Introduction 200
Variables in the communication situation 200
Other pictorial tropes 208
Summary 210
Notes 212
Bibliography 223
Index 231
List of illustrations

Table 2.1 The selection of mappable features in a verbal metaphor 11
Table 3.1 Rhetorical figures in the advertising image. Source:
Durand 1987:296 58
Figure 4.1 Jakobson’s (1960) communication model 70
Figure 4.2 The influence of pictorial context upon perception.
Source: Bosch 1985:146 75
Figure 4.3 The influence of pictorial context upon similarity
judgments. Source: Tversky 1977:341 77
Figure 6.1 Source: Advertising agency: Publi-Est/Gerstenhaber + Cie. 110
Figure 6.2 Source: doctored version of Figure 6.1 110
Table 6.1 The selection of mappable features in a pictorial metaphor 113
Figure 6.3 Source: Advertising agency: Beverly-Markagri, Groupe
‘Publicis’ 114
Figure 6.4Source: Advertising agency: FHV/BBDO 116
Figure 6.5Source: Advertising agency: DDB, New York 117
Figure 6.6Source: Advertising agency: HCM 119
Figure 6.7Source: Advertising agency: HCM 119
Figure 6.8Source: Advertising agency: PPGH/JWT 121
Figure 6.9Source: Advertising agency: Abbott Vickers/SMS Ltd. 123
Figure 6.10 Source: Advertising agency: Baums, Mang und
Zimmermann, Düsseldorf 124
Table 6.2 Primary subjects, secondary subjects and projected
features in pictorial metaphors 125
Figure 6.11 Source: Advertising agency: McCann-Erickson 128
Figure 6.12 Source: Advertising agency: KVH/GGK 129
Figure 6.13 Source: Advertising agency: HCM 130
Figure 6.14 Source: Advertising agency: PPGH/JWT 131
Figure 6.15 Source: doctored version of Figure 6.16 132
Figure 6.16 Source: Advertising agency: Foot, Cone & Belding 135
Figure 6.17 Source: Advertising agency: Young & Rubicam 138
Figure 6.18 Source: Advertising agency: Campaign Company 139
Figure 6.19 Source: Advertising agency: Noordervliet &
Winninghoff/Leo Burnett 140
viii List of illustrations
Figure 6.20 Source: Advertising agency: Young & Rubicam 150
Figure 6.21 Source: Advertising agency: PPGH/Moussault 151
Figure 6.22 Source: Advertising agency: PPGH/JWT 154
Figure 6.23 Source: Advertising agency: J.Walter Thompson 155
Figure 6.24 Source: Realization: Hans Haselaar, Wim Ubachs, Roel
Salomons 157
Figure 6.25 Source: Advertising agency: FHV/BBDO 158
Figure 6.26 Source: Advertising agency: HSR & S 160
Figure 6.27 Source: Advertising agency: DDB Needham 161
Figure 7.1Source: Advertising agency: GGK Amsterdam 171
Figure 7.2Source: Advertising agency: GGK Amsterdam 171
Figure 7.3Source: Advertising agency: GGK Amsterdam 172
Every attempt has been made to obtain permission to reproduce copyright
material, and publisher and author would like to thank the copyright holders
who granted permission to reprint their advertisements and billboards in this
book. If any proper acknowledgement has not been made, we would invite
copyright holders to inform Routledge of the oversight.
Acknowledgements

A metaphor is the result of the interaction between two different domains;
completing a book on metaphor is the result of the interaction with numerous
people. First of all I want to thank Elrud Ibsch and Lachlan Mackenzie (both Vrije
Universiteit Amsterdam), who monitored and commented upon the progress of
this book from its earliest beginnings. I have benefited much both from their
expertise and their enthusiasm. Apart from closely watching over the book’s overall
structure, Elrud managed to convince me that the book would gain by the
incorporation of an empirical component. To Lachlan I want to express my gratitude
for giving me the first taste of metaphor. His inspiring seminar on the subject in the
early 1980s was for me the beginning of what may well prove a life-long addiction.
Furthermore, the text owes much to his thoughtful comments and meticulous
editing.
Among my colleagues in the Department of English and the Department of
Comparative and Empirical Literature at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam I
would like to thank specifically Johan Hoorn, Dick Schram, and Gerard Steen.
The formal and informal discussions in this group helped foster the kind of
research climate without which no scholar can thrive.
While the academic community tends to agree readily that interdisciplinary
research deserves priority in funding decisions, the extent to which this
conviction is practised is often disappointing. I am therefore much indebted to
NWO (Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research) for subsidizing the
somewhat unconventional project of which this book is the fruit, and for the
grants that allowed me to present my research abroad.
Various chapters or parts of chapters in this book have been, or will be,
published in scholarly journals and collections of essays.1 In writing and
rewriting for the journals I learnt much from critical reports on submitted
articles.
Among the many academics whose suggestions and encouragement came at
moments when this was particularly welcome I would like to single out Guy
Cook, Leo Hoek, John Dixon Hunt, Mark Johnson, John Kennedy, and Jaap
H.Spoor.