Physics for Radiation Protection: A Handbook, Second Edition

829 Pages·2006·17.265 MB·English

by  James E. Martin(auth.)

JamesE.Martin
PhysicsforRadiationProtection
PhysicsforRadiationProtection:AHandbook.JamesE.Martin
Copyright(cid:19)2006WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim
ISBN:3-527-40611-5
James E. Martin
Physics for Radiation Protection
A Handbook
SecondEdition,CompletelyRevisedandEnlarged
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(cid:19)2006WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,
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ISBN-13: 978-3-527-40611-1
ISBN-10: 3-527-40611-5
To the memory of
Frank A. and Virginia E. Martin
and JoAnn Martin Burkhart.
VII
Contents
Preface XIX
1 AtomsandEnergy 1
1.1 StructureofAtoms 2
1.1.1 Two-protonAtoms 6
1.1.2 Three-protonAtoms 7
1.2 NuclideChart 7
1.3 AtomMeasures 9
1.3.1 Avogadro’sNumber 10
1.3.2 AtomicMassUnit(u) 10
1.4 EnergyConceptsforAtoms 11
Checkpoints 14
1.5 RelativisticEnergy 15
1.5.1 MomentumandEnergy 18
1.5.2 EffectsofVelocity 18
1.5.3 ANaturalLimit 19
1.5.4 Mass-energy 20
Checkpoints 21
1.6 ElectronVolt(eV) 22
1.7 BindingEnergyofNuclei 23
1.7.1 CalculationofBindingEnergy 24
1.7.2 Q-valueCalculations 24
1.8 SummaryandCheckpoints 26
OtherSuggestedSources 28
Problems–Chapter1 28
2 MajorDiscoveriesinRadiationPhysics 29
2.1 GreatDiscoveriesfromSimpleTools 30
2.1.1 DiscoveryofX-rays(1895) 31
2.1.2 DiscoveryofRadioactivity 32
2.1.3 DiscoveryoftheElectron 34
2.1.4 TheElectron’sCharge 35
2.2 FirstConceptoftheAtom 37
PhysicsforRadiationProtection:AHandbook.JamesE.Martin
Copyright92006WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim
ISBN:3-527-40611-5
VIII Contents
Checkpoint 39
2.3 TheoryofElectromagneticRadiation:theQuantum 39
2.3.1 Wein’sLaw 41
2.3.2 Rayleigh–JeansLaw 42
2.3.3 Planck’sQantumTheoryofRadiation 43
Checkpoint 45
2.3.4 QuantumTheoryandthePhotoelectricEffect 46
2.3.5 ElectromagneticSpectrum 48
2.3.6 ThePhoton 49
2.3.7 ComptonEffect 50
Checkpoint:QuantizedEnergy 53
2.4 DiscoveryoftheAtom’sStructure 54
2.4.1 Rutherford’sAlphaScatteringExperiments 55
2.4.2 BohrModeloftheAtom 57
2.4.3 EmissionandAbsorptionSpectra 58
2.5 WaveMechanics:aNecessaryTheory 63
2.5.1 DeBroglieWaves 63
2.5.2 ConfirmationofdeBroglie’sHypothesis 64
2.5.3 DeBroglieWavesandtheBohrModel 66
2.5.4 WaveMechanics 67
2.5.5 ExclusionPrinciple 70
2.5.6 UncertaintyPrinciple 72
2.6 AtomSystems 73
2.6.1 TheNeutron 73
2.6.2 NuclearShellModel 74
2.7 Summary 76
OtherSuggestedSources 77
Problems–Chapter2 77
3 RadioactiveTransformation 79
3.1 ProcessesofRadioactiveTransformation 79
3.1.1 TransformationofNeutron-richRadioactiveNuclei 81
3.1.2 DoubleBeta(bb)Transformation 85
3.1.3 TransformationofProton-richNuclei 85
3.1.4 PositronEmission 87
3.1.5 AverageEnergyofNegatronandPositronEmitters 90
3.1.6 ElectronCapture(EC) 91
3.1.7 RadioactiveTransformationofHeavyNucleibyAlphaParticle
Emission 93
3.1.8 TheoryofAlphaParticleTransformation 96
3.1.9 Transuranic(TRU)Radionuclides 98
3.1.10 GammaEmission 99
3.1.11 InternalTransition(MetastableorIsomericStates) 100
3.1.12 InternalConversion 101
3.1.13 MultipleModesofRadioactiveTransformation 107
Contents IX
3.1.14 TransformationbyDelayedNeutronEmission 109
3.1.15 TransformationbySpontaneousFission 109
3.1.16 ProtonEmission 111
3.2 DecaySchemes 112
3.3 RateofRadioactiveTransformation 115
3.3.1 Activity 116
3.3.2 UnitsofRadioactiveTransformation 116
3.3.3 MathematicsofRadioactiveTransformation 118
3.3.4 Half-Life 120
3.3.5 MeanLife 121
3.3.6 EffectiveHalf-life 122
3.4 RadioactivityCalculations 123
3.4.1 Half-lifeDetermination 126
3.5 Activity–massRelationships 128
3.5.1 SpecificActivity 128
3.6 RadioactiveSeriesTransformation 131
3.6.1 SeriesDecayCalculations 131
3.6.2 RecursiveKinetics:theBatemanEquations 134
3.7 RadioactiveEquilibrium 135
3.7.1 SecularEquilibrium 136
3.7.2 TransientEquilibrium 138
3.7.3 RadionuclideGenerators 139
3.8 TotalNumberofTransformations(Usesofsandk ) 142
Eff
3.9 DiscoveryoftheNeutrino 144
Acknowledgments 145
OtherSuggestedSources 145
Problems–Chapter3 146
4 Interactions 149
4.1 ProductionofX-rays 149
4.2 CharacteristicX-rays 151
4.2.1 X-raysandAtomicStructure 153
4.2.2 AugerElectrons 154
4.3 NuclearInteractions 156
4.3.1 Cross-Section 158
4.3.2 Q-valuesforNuclearReactions 160
4.4 AlphaParticleInteractions 162
4.4.1 Alpha–NeutronReactions 163
4.5 TransmutationbyProtonsandDeuterons 164
4.5.1 Proton–AlphaParticle(p,a)Reactions 166
4.5.2 Proton–Neutron(p,n)Reactions 167
4.5.3 Proton–Gamma(p,c)Reactions 168
4.5.4 Proton–DeuteronReactions 168
4.5.5 Deuteron–Alpha(d,a)Reactions 169
4.5.6 Deuteron–Proton(d,p)andDeuteron–Neutron(d,n)Reactions 169
X Contents
4.6 NeutronInteractions 172
4.6.1 RadiativeCapture(n,c)Reactions 172
4.6.2 ChargedParticleEmission(CPE) 173
4.6.3 Neutron–Proton(n,p)Reactions 174
4.6.4 Neutron–Neutron(n,2n)Reactions 174
4.7 ActivationProductCalculations 175
4.7.1 NeutronActivationProductCalculations 177
4.7.2 ChargedParticlesCalculations 182
4.8 MedicalIsotopeReactions 184
4.9 TransuraniumElements 186
4.10 PhotonInteractions 188
4.10.1 ActivationbyPhotons 188
4.11 FissionandFusionReactions 191
4.11.1 Fission 191
4.11.2 Fusion 192
4.12 Summary 196
OtherSuggestedSources 197
Problems–Chapter4 197
5 NuclearFissionanditsProducts 201
5.1 FissionEnergy 203
5.2 PhysicsofSustainedNuclearFission 205
5.3 NeutronEconomyandReactivity 210
5.4 NuclearPowerReactors 212
5.4.1 ReactorDesign:BasicSystems 213
5.5 LightWaterReactors(LWRs) 215
5.5.1 PressurizedWaterReactor(PWR) 215
5.5.2 BoilingWaterReactor(BWR) 217
5.5.3 InherentSafetyFeaturesofLWRs 219
5.5.4 DecayHeatinPowerReactors 221
5.5.5 UraniumEnrichment 222
5.6 HeavyWaterReactors(HWRs) 223
5.6.1 HWRSafetySystems 226
5.7 BreederReactors 227
5.7.1 LiquidMetalFastBreederReactor(LMFBR) 229
5.8 Gas-cooledReactors 232
5.8.1 High-temperatureGasReactor(HTGR) 233
5.9 ReactorRadioactivity 234
5.9.1 FuelCladding 235
5.9.2 RadioactiveProductsofFission 236
5.9.3 ProductionofIndividualFissionProducts 240
5.9.4 FissionProductsinSpentFuel 242
5.9.5 FissionProductPoisons 243
5.10 RadioactivityinReactors 246
5.10.1 ActivationProductsinNuclearReactors 246
Contents XI
5.10.2 TritiumProductioninReactors 249
5.10.3 Low-levelRadioactiveWaste 250
5.11 Summary 251
Acknowledgments 252
OtherSuggestedSources 253
Problems–Chapter5 253
6 NaturallyOccuringRadiationandRadioactivity 255
6.1 DiscoveryandInterpretation 256
6.2 BackgroundRadiation 259
6.3 CosmicRadiation 260
6.4 CosmogenicRadionuclides 263
6.5 NaturallyRadioacitveSeries 267
6.5.1 NeptuniumSeriesRadionuclides 274
6.6 SinglyOccuringPrimordialRadionuclides 274
6.7 RadioactiveOresandByproducts 276
6.7.1 ResourceRecovery 278
6.7.2 UraniumOres 278
6.7.3 WaterTreatmentSludge 279
6.7.4 PhosphateIndustryWastes 279
6.7.5 ElementalPhosphorus 280
6.7.6 ManhattanProjectWastes 281
6.7.7 ThoriumOres 283
6.8 RadioactivityDating 284
6.8.1 CarbonDating 284
6.8.2 DatingbyPrimordialRadionuclides 285
6.8.3 Potassium–ArgonDating 286
6.8.4 Ionium(230Th)Method 287
6.8.5 Lead-210Dating 287
6.9 RadonanditsProgeny 288
6.9.1 RadonSubseries 289
6.9.2 WorkingLevelforRadonProgeny 292
6.9.3 MeasurementofRadon 296
6.10 Summary 300
Acknowledgements 301
OtherSuggestedSources 301
Problems–Chapter6 302
7 InteractionsofRadiationwithMatter 305
7.1 RadiationDoseandUnits 305
7.1.1 RadiationAbsorbedDose 306
7.1.2 RadiationDoseEquivalent 306
7.1.3 RadiationExposure 307
7.2 RadiationDoseCalculations 309
7.2.1 InverseSquareLaw 309
XII Contents
7.3 InteractionProcesses 310
7.4 InteractionsofAlphaParticlesandHeavyNuclei 312
7.4.1 RecoilNucleiandFissionFragments 314
7.4.2 RangeofAlphaParticles 314
7.5 BetaParticleInteractionsandDose 317
7.5.1 EnergyLossbyIonization 318
7.5.2 EnergyLossesbyBremsstrahlung 318
7.5.3 CerenkovRadiation 319
7.5.4 AttenuationofBetaParticles 321
7.5.5 RangeVersusEnergyofBetaParticles 322
7.5.6 RadiationDosefromBetaParticles 324
7.5.7 BetaDosefromContaminatedSurfaces 327
7.5.8 BetaContaminationonSkinorClothing 328
7.5.9 BetaDosefromHotParticles 329
7.6 PhotonInteractions 330
7.6.1 PhotoelectricInteractions 331
7.6.2 ComptonInteractions 332
7.6.3 PairProduction 334
7.6.4 Photodisintegration 336
7.7 PhotonAttenuationandAbsorption 337
7.7.1 Attenuation(l)andEnergyAbsorption(l )Coefficients 340
En
7.7.2 EffectofEandZonPhotonAttenuation/Absorption 344
7.7.3 AbsorptionEdges 346
Checkpoints 348
7.8 EnergyTransferandAbsorptionbyPhotons 348
7.8.1 ElectronicEquilibrium 353
7.8.2 Bragg–GrayTheory 355
7.9 Exposure/DoseCalculations 356
7.9.1 PointSources 357
7.9.2 GammaRayConstant,C 358
7.9.3 ExposureandAbsorbedDose 360
7.9.4 Exposure,Kerma,andAbsorbedDose 361
7.10 Summary 363
Acknowledgments 363
OtherSuggestedSources 364
Problems–Chapter7 364
8 RadiationShielding 367
8.1 ShieldingofAlpha-EmittingSources 367
8.2 ShieldingofBeta-EmittingSources 368
8.2.1 AttenuationofBetaParticles 368
8.2.2 BremsstrahlungEffectsforBetaShielding 371
8.3 ShieldingofPhotonSources 374
8.3.1 ShieldingofGoodGeometryPhotonSources 375
8.3.2 Half-ValueandTenth-ValueLayers 382