Table Of ContentPhysics and Radiobiology
of Nuclear Medicine
Second Edition
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
Gopal B. Saha, Ph.D.
Department 0/ Nuclear Medicine
The Cleveland Clinic Foundation
Physics and Radiobiology
of Nuclear Medicine
Second Edition
With 86 Illustrations
, Springer
Gopal B. Saha, Ph.D.
Department ofNuclear Medicine
The Cleveland Clinic Foundation
Cleveland, OH 44195
USA
Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Saha, Gopal B.
Physics and radiobiology of nuc1ear medicine / Gopal B. Saha.-2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliography references and index.
1. Medical physics. 2. Nuc1ear medicine. 3. Radiobiology. I. Title.
[DNLM: I. Nuc1ear Medicine. 2. Biophysics 3. Radiobiology. WN 440 S l3lp 2000]
R895.S25 2000
616.07'575---<ic21 00-022559
Printed on acid-free paper.
ISBN 978-1-4757-3499-7 ISBN 978-1-4757-3497-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-3497-3
© 2001, 1993 Springer Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by Springer-Verlag New York, Inc in 2001.
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 2nd edition 200 I
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written
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SPIN 10980217
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To my mother, Charubala,
my father, the late Hriday Ranjan,
my wife, Sipra,
and
my children, Prantik and Trina
Preface
The knowledge of physics, instrumentation, and radiobiology in nuclear
medicine has advanced greatly since the first edition of this book was pub
lished in 1993. This, along with the appreciation of the book by the nuclear
medicine community, has prompted us to do a second edition.
As with the first edition, this book is primarily addressed to residents
taking the American Board ofNuclear Medicine and the American Board of
Radiology with Special Competency in Nuclear Medicine examinations, and
to technologists taking the Registry examination in nuclear medicine. In
addition, anyone interested in the physics, instrumentation, and radiobiology
of nuclear medicine should find the book useful.
I have made both additions and deletions to the previous edition of the
book, to keep it up to date. At the end of each chapter are a set of questions
and a list of suggested readings.
The book contains 15 chapters. The first 10 chapters and Chapter 15 have
only minor changes. Chapter 8 has a new seetion on various currently
available solid scintillation detectors. Chapter 9 has a new seetion on digital
cameras. Chapter 10 has an expanded section on nonlinearity and non
uniformity of the gamma camera systems. Chapter 11, on digital computers
in nuclear medicine, is entirely new. Tomographie imaging systems have
been thoroughly upgraded in Chapter 12, stressing particularly the recon
struction of images. Chapter 13, on internal radiation dosimetry, has been
updated to include additional information on S values and effective doses.
Chapter 14 on radiobiology has been completely revamped and includes a
lot of new information. New regulatory information has been included in
Chapter 15. New questions have been added to those chapters that have
been extensively changed.
The changes made in the book resulted from the advice and suggestions
of many interested readers and close associates whom I gratefully thank.
I would appreciate having any errors in this edition brought to my attention
by concerned readers.
In writing this new edition I received help from many experts in different
fields. I am ever grateful to Dr. W. J. MacIntyre of oUf department, whose
VB
V111 Preface
perusal of the newly written sections and chapters prompted many sugges
tions and ideas that were very essential for this edition. Thanks also are
due to Dr. D. R. Neumann and Mr. B. Sufka for clarifying some of the
issues related to computers and the filter backprojection technique. Assis
tance from all members of our department including Dr. S. Raja is greatly
appreciated.
I am ever thankful and grateful to Ms. Rita Buzzelli for typing this
manuscript conscientiously, patiently, and efficiently, and for timely com
pietion of the book with meticulous effort.
I thank the staff at my publisher, Springer-Verlag, for their continued
support in publishing this edition.
Finally, I thank my wife, Sipra, for her forbearance and understanding,
which helped a great deal in completing this edition.
Gopal B. Saha, Ph.D.
Contents
Prefaee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Chapter 1 Strueture of Matter ........................................ .
Matter and Energy.................................................... 1
Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Atom............................................................. 2
Eleetronie Strueture of the Atom .................................. 3
Strueture of the Nuc1eus ........................................... 6
Nuc1ear Binding Energy............................................ 7
Nuc1ear Nomenc1ature.. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. ... .. . ... . .. .... . ... .. .. . .. . .. . . 8
Chart of the Nuc1ides................................................. 8
Questions. ............................................................. 10
Suggested Readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Chapter 2 Radioaetive Deeay ......................................... 11
Spontaneous Fission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Isomerie Transition................................................... 12
Gamma (y)-Ray Emission. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . .. ... .. . .. ..... .. .. 12
Internal Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Alpha (Q()-Deeay ...................................................... 14
Beta (ß-)-Deeay ...................................................... 15
Positron (p+)-Deeay . .. . .. . . .. .. .. ... .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. ... .. . .. ... .. .. . . 17
Eleetron Capture...................................................... 19
Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Suggested Readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Chapter 3 Kineties of Radioaetive Deeay ............................. 21
Radioaetive Deeay Equations . ... . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . .. . .. . ... . . 21
General Equation .................................................. 21
Half-Life............................................................ 22
Mean Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Effeetive Half-life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
ix
x Contents
Units of Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Specific Activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Calculation ................................................ ;........... 27
Successive Decay Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
General Equation .................................................. 29
Transient Equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Secular Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Suggested Readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Chapter 4 Statistics of Radiation Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Error, Accuracy, and Precision....................................... 34
Mean and Standard Deviation ....................................... 34
Standard Deviation of Count Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Propagation of Errors ................................................ 37
Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Chapter 5 Production of Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Cyclotron-Produced Radionuclides ...... " . .. . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . 40
Reactor-Produced Radionuclides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Fission or (n,!) Reaction.......................................... 42
Neutron Capture or (n, y) Reaction................................ 43
Target and Its Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Equation for Production of Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Radionuclide Generators............................................. 47
99Mo_991llTc Generator. " . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . . . .. . .. 48
Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Chapter 6 Interaction of Radiation with Matter...................... 51
Interaction of Charged Partieles with Matter .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Specific Ionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Linear Energy Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Range............................................................... 53
Bremsstrahlung. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Annihilation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Interaction of y-Radiations with Matter.............................. 55
Mechanism of Interaction of y-Radiations......................... 55
Attenuation of y-Radiations ....................................... 59
Interaction of Neutrons with Matter ................... " .. .. . .. . .. . . 63
Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Suggested Readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
