Physical Metallurgy, Second Edition

427 Pages·2010·19.46 MB·English

by  William F. Hosford

Physical
Metallurgy
Second Edition
© 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Physical
Metallurgy
Second Edition
William F. Hosford

© 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press
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© 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Version Date: 20110725
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© 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Contents
Preface .................................................................................................................. xv
Author ................................................................................................................ xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................... 1
1.1 Metallic Elements ................................................................ 1
1.2 Price and Abundance ............................................................. 4
1.3 Miscellany .............................................................................. 5
Problems ......................................................................................... 6
Reference .......................................................................................... 8
Chapter 2 Freezing ............................................................................................ 9
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 9
2.2 Liquid Metals ......................................................................... 9
2.3 Nucleation .............................................................................. 9
2.4 Growth ................................................................................. 15
2.5 Ingot Structure ..................................................................... 16
2.6 Segregation during Freezing ............................................... 18
2.7 Zone Refi ning ...................................................................... 20
2.8 Steady-State Freezing .......................................................... 23
2.9 D endritic Growth ................................................................. 23
2.10 Length and Spacing of Dendrite Arms ............................... 25
2.11 Consequences of Dendritic Growth .................................... 27
2.12 Gas Solubility and Gas Porosity .......................................... 27
2.13 Growth of Single Crystals ................................................... 29

2.14 Eutectic Solidifi cation ......................................................... 29
2.15 Peritectic Freezing ............................................................... 30
2.16 Metal Glasses ....................................................................... 31
2.17 Miscellany ........................................................................... 33
Problems ......................................................................................... 34
References ...................................................................................... 36
Chapter 3 Diffusion ......................................................................................... 37
3.1 Fick’s First Law ...................................................................... 37
3.2 Fick’s Second Law ............................................................... 37
3.3 Solutions of Fick’s Second Law ........................................... 39
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3.3.1 Addition of Material to or Removal from
a Surface ................................................................... 39
3.3.2 Junction of Two Solid Solutions ............................... 40
3.3.3 Homogenization ....................................................... 41
3.4 Mechanisms of Diffusion .................................................... 42
3.5 Kirkendall Effect ................................................................. 44
3.6 Special Diffusion Paths ........................................................ 45
3.7 Darken’s Equation ................................................................ 47
3.8 Diffusion in Systems with More than One Phase ................ 47
3.9 Miscellany ............................................................................ 51
Problems ......................................................................................... 52
References ...................................................................................... 52
Chapter 4 Surface Tension and Surface Energy ............................................. 53
4.1 Direct Measurements of Surface Energy ............................. 53
4.2 Measurements of Relative Surface Energies ....................... 55
4.3 Wetting Angles .................................................................... 56
4.4 Relation of Surface Energy to Bonding ............................... 56
4.5 Anisotropy of Surface Energy ............................................. 57
4.6 Segregation to Surfaces ........................................................ 60
4.6.1 Note .......................................................................... 61
4.7 Miscellany ............................................................................ 61
Problems ......................................................................................... 61
Appendix: Data on Various Systems .............................................. 62
References ..........................................................................................64
Chapter 5 Solid Solutions ................................................................................ 65
5.1 Types of Solid Solutions ...................................................... 65
5.2 Electron-to-Atom Ratio ....................................................... 65
5.3 Entropy of Mixing ............................................................... 66
5.4 Enthalpy of Mixing .............................................................. 68

5.5 Free Energy Change on Mixing ........................................... 69
5.5.1 Solubility in Dilute Solutions ................................... 70
5.6 Equilibrium Vacancy and Interstitial Concentrations ......... 71
5.7 Ordered versus Random Solid Solutions ............................. 71
5.8 Miscellany ............................................................................ 72
Problems ......................................................................................... 74
References ...................................................................................... 75
Chapter 6 Intermediate Phases ....................................................................... 77
6.1 Hume-Rothery or Electron Phases ....................................... 77
6.2 Covalent Compounds ........................................................... 77
6.3 Ionic Compounds ................................................................. 77
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Contents vii
6.4 I nterstitial Compounds ......................................................... 78
6.5 Laves Phases ........................................................................ 78
6.6 Miscellany ............................................................................ 81
Problems ......................................................................................... 81
References ...................................................................................... 81
Chapter 7 Phase Diagrams .............................................................................. 83
7.1 Review of Binary Phase Diagrams ...................................... 83
7.2 Invariant Reactions .............................................................. 83
7.3 Lever Law ............................................................................ 84
7.4 Gibbs’ Phase Rule ................................................................ 84
7.4.1 Equalities .................................................................. 85
7.4.2 Variables ................................................................... 86
7.4.3 Degrees of Freedom ................................................. 86
7.5 Ternary Phase Diagrams ...................................................... 88
7.5.1 Two-Phase Regions .................................................. 89
7.5.2 Three-Phase Regions ................................................ 90
7.5.3 Vertical Sections ....................................................... 91
7.6 Miscellany ............................................................................ 92
Problems ......................................................................................... 93
References ...................................................................................... 93
Chapter 8 Dislocations .................................................................................... 95
8.1 The Nature of Dislocations .................................................. 95
8.2 Energy of a Screw Dislocation ............................................. 97
8.3 Burgers Vector Notation .................................................... 100
8.4 Reactions between Parallel Dislocations
and Frank’s Rule ................................................................ 100
8.5 Stress Fields around Dislocations ...................................... 101
8.6 Forces on Dislocations ....................................................... 103
8.7 Partial Dislocations in fcc Crystals .................................... 104

8.8 Stacking Faults ................................................................... 106
8.9 C ross Slip ........................................................................... 109
8.10 M iscellany .......................................................................... 110
8.10.1 Postulation of Dislocations ..................................... 110
8.10.2 Discovery of the Strength of Whiskers .................. 111
Problems ....................................................................................... 111
References .................................................................................... 113
Chapter 9 Annealing ..................................................................................... 115
9.1 General ............................................................................... 115
9.2 Recovery ............................................................................ 115
9.3 Recrystallization ................................................................ 118
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9.4 Avrami Kinetics ................................................................. 124
9.5 Grain Growth ..................................................................... 125
9.6 Limiting Grain Size ........................................................... 129
9.6.1 Summary of Grain Growth .................................... 132
9.7 Chapter Summary .............................................................. 132
9.8 Miscellany .......................................................................... 133
Problems ....................................................................................... 133
References .................................................................................... 135
Chapter 10 Phase Transformations ................................................................. 137
10.1 Classifi cation of Solid–State
Phase Transformations ....................................................... 137
10.2 M artensitic Transformations .............................................. 137
10.3 Spinodal Decomposition .................................................... 140
10.4 Nucleation Kinetics ............................................................ 143
10.5 Growth ............................................................................... 143
10.6 O verall Kinetics ................................................................. 144
10.7 Precipitation from a Supersaturated Solid
Solution .............................................................................. 145
10.8 Precipitation Hardening Kinetics ...................................... 145
10.9 Precipitate Growth ............................................................. 147
10.10 P recipitation Kinetics ......................................................... 148
10.11 Strain Energy ..................................................................... 148
10.12 Hardening Mechanism ....................................................... 149
10.13 O stwald Ripening .............................................................. 150
10.14 Practical Age-Hardening Treatments ................................ 150
10.15 Aluminum–Copper Alloys ................................................ 154
10.16 Habit ................................................................................... 155
10.17 Miscellany .......................................................................... 157
Problems ....................................................................................... 158
References ........................................................................................160

Chapter 11 Crystallographic Textures ............................................................ 161
11.1 Stereographic Projection .................................................... 161
11.2 Construction of a Standard Cubic Projection .................... 163
11.3 Locating the HKL Pole in the Standard Stereographic
Projection of a Cubic Crystal ............................................. 164
11.4 Orientation Representation ................................................ 165
11.5 Pole Figures ........................................................................ 166
11.6 Inverse Pole Figures ........................................................... 167
11.7 Orientation Distribution Functions .................................... 167
11.8 Origins of Texture .............................................................. 168
11.9 Recrystallization Textures ................................................. 170
11.10 Effect of Texture on Mechanical Properties ...................... 170
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11.11 Effect of Texture on the Microstructure
of Wires of BCC Metals .................................................... 172
11.12 Miscellany .......................................................................... 177
Problems ....................................................................................... 179
References .................................................................................... 179
Chapter 12 Aluminum and Its Alloys ............................................................. 181
12.1 Uses .................................................................................... 181
12.2 Alloys ................................................................................. 181
12.3 Wrought Alloys .................................................................. 184
12.3.1 Temper Designations .............................................. 184
12.4 Casting Alloys .................................................................... 188
12.5 Powder Processing ............................................................. 190
12.6 Corrosion Resistance ......................................................... 191
12.7 Aluminum–Lithium Alloys ............................................... 193
12.8 Foams ................................................................................. 196
12.9 Miscellany .......................................................................... 196
Problems ....................................................................................... 197
References ...................................................................................... 199
Chapter 13 Copper and Nickel Alloys ............................................................ 201
13.1 Electrical Properties ........................................................... 201
13.2 Commercial Grades of Copper .......................................... 201
13.3 Commercial Copper Alloys ............................................... 207
13.4 Brass ................................................................................... 207
13.5 Other Copper-Based Alloys ............................................... 211
13.6 Casting of Copper Alloys ................................................... 215
13.7 Corrosion of Copper Alloys ............................................... 217
13.8 Nickel-Based Alloys .......................................................... 219
13.9 Miscellany .......................................................................... 221
Problems ....................................................................................... 222

References .................................................................................... 223
Chapter 14 Hexagonal Close-Packed Metals .................................................. 225
14.1 General ............................................................................... 225
14.2 Z inc .................................................................................... 225
14.3 Magnesium ......................................................................... 227
14.4 Titanium ............................................................................. 232
14.5 Z irconium .......................................................................... 241
14.6 Beryllium ........................................................................... 241
14.7 M iscellany .......................................................................... 241
Problems ....................................................................................... 242
References ...................................................................................... 243
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Chapter 15 Other Nonferrous Metals ............................................................. 245
15.1 Lead ................................................................................... 245
15.2 Tin ...................................................................................... 245
15.3 Gold .................................................................................... 245
15.4 Silver .................................................................................. 246
15.5 Cobalt ................................................................................. 247
15.6 Platinum Metals ................................................................. 247
15.7 Group VA and VIA Metals ................................................ 249
15.8 Tungsten and Molybdenum ................................................ 250
15.9 Tantalum, Niobium, and Rhenium .................................... 252
15.10 Alloys with Special Physical Properties ............................ 252
15.11 Miscellaneous Metals ........................................................ 253
15.12 Miscellany .......................................................................... 254
Problems ....................................................................................... 255
References .................................................................................... 255
Chapter 16 Steels ............................................................................................ 257
16.1 Microstructures of Carbon Steels ...................................... 257
16.2 Kinetics of Pearlite Formation ........................................... 260
16.3 Alloying Elements in Steel ................................................ 264
16.4 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams ................................ 264
16.5 Continuous Cooling Diagrams .......................................... 268
16.6 Martensite .......................................................................... 268
16.7 Special Heat Treatments .................................................... 269
16.8 Miscellany .......................................................................... 270
Problems ....................................................................................... 277
References .................................................................................... 278
Chapter 17 Hardening of Steels ...................................................................... 279
17.1 Hardenability: Jominey End-Quench Test ......................... 279
17.2 Ideal Diameter Calculations .............................................. 283
17.3 Boron .................................................................................. 288
17.4 Martensite and Retained Austenite .................................... 288
17.5 Miscellany .......................................................................... 292
Problems ....................................................................................... 292
References .................................................................................... 292
Chapter 18 Tempering and Surface Hardening .............................................. 293
18.1 Tempering .......................................................................... 293
18.2 Secondary Hardening ........................................................ 297
18.3 Temper Embrittlement ....................................................... 297
18.4 C arburizing ........................................................................ 299
18.5 Nitriding ............................................................................. 300
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