Physical metallurgy : principles and design

490 Pages·2018·14.57 MB·English

by  Haidemenopoulos

PHYSICAL
METALLURGY
PRINCIPLES DESIGN
AND

PHYSICAL
METALLURGY
PRINCIPLES DESIGN
AND
GREGORY N. HAIDEMENOPOULOS
Boca Raton London New York
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Version Date: 20180111
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Dedication
Dedicated
to allfour

Contents
Preface.....................................................................................................................xiii
Chapter1 Introduction.....................................................................................1
1.1 Whatisphysicalmetallurgy..................................................1
1.2 Theaimofthebook...............................................................2
1.3 Whoshouldreadthisbook....................................................2
1.4 Bookstructure.......................................................................3
1.5 Howtoreadthebook.............................................................4
Chapter2 Structureofmetals...........................................................................5
2.1 Introduction...........................................................................5
2.2 Crystallinevs.amorphousmaterials......................................5
2.3 Thecrystallattice..................................................................6
2.4 Thecrystalstructureofmetals............................................11
2.5 Allotropy..............................................................................16
2.6 Crystalstructureeffects.......................................................17
2.7 Solidsolutions.....................................................................18
2.7.1 Interstitialsolidsolutions.........................................18
2.7.2 Substitutionalsolidsolutions...................................22
2.8 Intermetalliccompoundsandintermediatephases..............23
2.9 Afirstlookatthemicrostructureofalloys..........................24
2.10 Thermodynamicsandkineticsofstructure..........................26
2.10.1 Thermodynamicequilibrium...................................27
2.10.2 Internalenergy.........................................................28
2.10.3 Enthalpy...................................................................29
2.10.4 Entropy.....................................................................29
2.10.5 Gibbsfreeenergyandthermodynamicequilibrium34
2.10.6 Kineticsofstructure.................................................35
2.11 Synopsis...............................................................................38
2.12 Reviewquestions.................................................................40
Chapter3 Structuralimperfections................................................................41
3.1 Introduction.........................................................................41
3.2 Pointdefects........................................................................41
3.2.1 Vacanciesandinterstitials........................................41
3.2.2 Vacanciesanddiffusion...........................................45
3.3 Linearimperfections–Dislocations....................................45
3.3.1 Theplasticdeformationofcrystals..........................45
3.3.2 Thestrengthofperfectcrystals................................47
vii
viii Contents
3.3.3 Dislocations and plastic deformation in metal
crystals.....................................................................49
3.3.4 Geometricalcharacteristicsofdislocations.............55
3.3.5 Mixeddislocationsanddislocationloops................56
3.3.6 Energyanddensityofdislocations..........................60
3.3.7 Perfectandpartialdislocations,stackingfaults.......60
3.3.8 Dislocation movements: glide, cross–slip, and
climb........................................................................64
3.3.9 Jogsandkinks,dislocationreactions.......................65
3.3.10 Plasticdeformationduetodislocationglide............66
3.3.11 Energyandstressfieldsofdislocations...................69
3.3.12 Forcesondislocations..............................................71
3.3.13 Observationofdislocations......................................74
3.3.14 Dislocationeffects...................................................75
3.4 Interfaces.............................................................................75
3.4.1 Introduction–Interfacialenergy..............................75
3.4.2 Freesurfaces............................................................77
3.4.3 Grainboundaries......................................................77
3.4.4 Interphaseboundaries..............................................81
3.4.5 Interfaceeffects........................................................84
3.5 Synopsis...............................................................................84
3.6 Reviewquestions.................................................................87
Chapter4 Alloythermodynamicsandphasediagrams..................................91
4.1 Introduction.........................................................................91
4.2 Freeenergyofone-componentsystems(puremetals)........92
4.3 Freeenergyofsolidsolutions..............................................96
4.4 Chemicalpotentialandthermodynamicequilibrium........101
4.5 TheGibbsphaserule.........................................................105
4.6 Equilibriumphasediagramsinbinarysystems.................108
4.6.1 Binarysystemwithcompletesolidsolubility........109
4.6.2 Binarysystemwithamiscibilitygap.....................110
4.6.3 Binarysystemwitheutecticpoint..........................111
4.6.4 Binarysystemwithperitecticpoint.......................118
4.7 Examplesofphasediagrams.............................................119
4.7.1 ThebinarysystemCu Zn....................................119
−
4.7.2 ThebinarysystemFe-C.........................................120
4.8 Casestudy:Solderalloys–ThePb-Snphasediagram.....123
4.9 Synopsis.............................................................................130
4.10 Reviewquestions...............................................................131
Chapter5 Diffusion......................................................................................135
5.1 Introduction.......................................................................135
5.2 Diffusionmechanisms.......................................................135
Contents ix
5.3 Fick’sfirstlawofdiffusion–Thediffusioncoefficient....137
5.4 Randomwalkanddiffusion...............................................139
5.5 Fick’ssecondlawofdiffusion...........................................140
5.6 Temperaturedependenceofdiffusion...............................142
5.7 Thermodynamicsanddiffusion.........................................146
5.7.1 Drivingforcefordiffusion.....................................146
5.7.2 Concentration dependence of the diffusion
coefficient–Thethermodynamicfactor................149
5.8 Substitutionaldiffusion......................................................151
5.8.1 Self-diffusioninpuremetals..................................152
5.8.2 Self-diffusioninahomogeneoussolidsolution.....152
5.8.3 Substitutional diffusion in a solid solution
withconcentrationgradients–Interdiffusion........153
5.8.4 Reviewofdiffusioncoefficients............................158
5.9 Irreversiblethermodynamicsanddiffusion.......................158
5.9.1 Diffusioninmulticomponentsystems...................160
5.9.2 Diffusion by non-chemical forces: Curvature
andstress................................................................163
5.10 Effectsofdiffusion............................................................166
5.11 Analyticalsolutionstothediffusionequation...................167
5.11.1 Typesofdiffusionproblems..................................168
5.11.2 Shortdiffusiontimesorsemi-infinitemedia.........168
5.11.3 Longdiffusiontimesorfinitemedia......................173
5.11.4 ApplicationoftheLaplacetransformindiffusion
problems.................................................................175
5.11.5 Movingboundaryproblems...................................176
5.12 Numericalmethods–Computationalkinetics..................179
5.13 Synopsis.............................................................................180
5.14 Reviewquestions...............................................................181
Chapter6 Phasetransformations..................................................................185
6.1 Introduction.......................................................................185
6.2 Nucleationandgrowthtransformations(NGT).................188
6.3 Nucleation..........................................................................189
6.3.1 Thechemicaldrivingforcefornucleation.............189
6.3.2 Homogeneousnucleation.......................................190
6.3.3 Heterogeneousnucleation......................................192
6.3.4 Nucleationstrainenergyandthemorphologyof
thenewphase.........................................................196
6.4 Growth...............................................................................200
6.4.1 Growthprocesses...................................................200
6.4.2 Interface-controlledgrowth....................................202
6.4.3 Diffusion-controlledgrowth..................................205
6.5 Overallrateofconcurrentnucleationandgrowth.............207