Photonanotechnology for Therapeutics and Imaging

409 Pages·2020·12.454 MB·English

by  Ph.D. Choi, Seok Ki (editor)

PHOTONANOTECHNOLOGY
FOR THERAPEUTICS AND
IMAGING
Edited by
S K C , P D
EOK I HOI H
MichiganNanotechnology Institutefor MedicineandBiologicalSciences,
andDepartmentof InternalMedicine,University ofMichigan MedicalSchool,
AnnArbor,MI,United States
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Contributors
Samir Acherar Université de Lorraine, Labo- Wenbin Liu Department of Chemistry, School
ratoire de Chimie Physique Macromoléculaire, of Science, Xi’an Jiaotong University, ShaanXi
UMR7375CNRS,Nancy,France Province,Xi’an,People’sRepublicofChina
Shaswat Barua School of Mechanical and AlbertMoussaron Université de Lorraine, Lab-
Aerospace Engineering, Queen University oratoire de Chimie Physique Macro-
Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom; Department moléculaire, UMR 7375 CNRS, Nancy, France;
of Chemistry, School of Basic Science, Assam Université de Lorraine, Laboratoire Réactions
KazirangaUniversity,Jorhat, Assam,India et Génie des Procédés, UMR 7274 CNRS,
Amina Ben-Mihoub Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France
Laboratoire de Chimie Physique Macro- Xiangyang Shi State Key Laboratory for Mod-
moléculaire,UMR7375CNRS,Nancy,France ification of Chemical Fiber and Polymer Mate-
Biqiong Chen School of Mechanical and Aero- rials, College of Chemistry, Chemical
space Engineering, Queen University Belfast, Engineering and Biotechnology, Donghua
University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of
Belfast,UnitedKingdom
China
Seok Ki Choi Michigan Nanotechnology Insti-
KangSun StateKeyLaboratoryofMetalMatrix
tute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, and
Composites, School of Materials Science and
DepartmentofInternalMedicine,Universityof
Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai,People’sRepublicofChina
UnitedStates
Chang-Ming Dong School of Chemistry and Ke Tao State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix
Composites, School of Materials Science and
Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Key Labora-
tory of Electrical Insulation and Thermal Ag- Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai,People’sRepublicofChina
ing, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai,
People’sRepublicofChina Régis Vanderesse Université de Lorraine,
Céline Frochot Université de Lorraine, Labo- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique Macro-
ratoire Réactions et Génie des Procédés, UMR moléculaire,UMR7375CNRS,Nancy,France
7274CNRS,Nancy,France Xingjie Wu School of Pharmaceutical Science,
Xiangshuai Geng Department of Materials Sci- Guizhou Medical University, Guizhou,
ence and Engineering, University of Sheffield, People’sRepublicofChina
Sheffield,UnitedKingdom Zahraa Youssef Université de Lorraine, Labo-
Min Hu Department of Chemistry, School of ratoire Réactions et Génie des Procédés, UMR
Science, Xi’an Jiaotong University, ShaanXi 7274CNRS,Nancy,France
Province,Xi’an,People’sRepublicofChina Changchang Zhang State Key Laboratory for
Du Li State Key Laboratory for Modification of Modification of Chemical Fiber and Polymer
ChemicalFiberandPolymerMaterials,College Materials, College of Chemistry, Chemical
of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Bio- Engineering and Biotechnology, Donghua Uni-
technology, Donghua University, Shanghai, versity,Shanghai,People’sRepublicofChina
People’sRepublicofChina
ix
Preface
Photonanotechnology is an emerging absorption, scattering, and penetration in
branch of nanotechnology focusing on pho- three spectral regionsdultraviolet, visible,
toactive nanomaterials and approaches that and near-infrared (NIR). It helps in better
cangeneratefunctionaleffectsinresponseto understandingandselectinglightsourcesfor
light stimulation. These nanomaterials have the optimal design of photoactive
been playing an increasingly more central nanomaterials.
roleasnovelresearchtoolsandcutting-edge Chapter 2 describes hybrid nanogel
platformsinvariousbiomedicalapplications systems and their applications in photo-
fortherapy,imaging,anddiagnosticdevices. acoustictumorimagingandPTT.Theauthors
Given their rapidly growing impacts, it is of provide a thorough framework for address-
considerableinterestaswellasaworthwhile ing achievements and challenges in the
expenditure of time to address their design development of phototheranostic platforms
concepts and practical applications. for tumors.
Despite its significant use in the field, Chapter 3 is devoted to a class of
photonanotechnology remains rather unde- graphene-based photoactive nanomaterials
fined for beginners as well as current in- including quantumdots and their important
vestigators, in part due to its engagement in contributions to healthcare applications.
multiple interdisciplinary areas. This book The authors address their unique benefits,
aims to help clarify principles and functions challenges, and outlooks with regard to the
in photonanotechnology succinctly and aspects of biomedical imaging, PDT, PTT,
thoroughly. For this purpose, it brings and drug delivery.
together dozens of experts from multidisci- Chapter4focusesonplasmonicgold(Au)
plinaryareasforchaptercontributionsabout nanoparticles and their clinical prospects by
the status and future prospects of photo- NIR-light-mediated PTT. The authors
nanotechnology. The authors identify major elaborate on their fabrication methods and
areas of its impacts on the basis of thera- anticancer applications including combina-
peuticandimagingmodalitiesthatcomprise tion therapies with chemotherapy and
photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic immunotherapy.
therapy (PDT), photocontrolled drug de- Chapter 5 discusses the development of
livery, and theranostic nanodevices. This new theranostic nanosystems reported over
book illustrates their relevance and capa- the last 10 years with a focus on their PDT
bility to address unmet needs in the detec- therapy and imaging modality against
tion and treatment of serious disease cancers.Theauthorsprovideanoverviewof
conditions related to cancers and bacterial various nanosystems from polymer, gra-
infections. phene, inorganic metal oxide, copper, and
Chapter1introduceslightsourceswithan gold to upconversion nanocrystals (UCNs)
emphasis on their properties of relevance to
xi
xii
PREFACE
and conclude with conditionally activatable The appendix section presents twelve ta-
PDT systems. bles, each addressing a key aspect and
Chapters 6 and 7 are dedicated to recent including references cited therein. These
advances in UCNs, focusing on their design relate to light sources, photocleavable
concepts, synthesis, and applications in ther- linkers, photoactive nanosystems developed
apy and imaging. The authors provide a for anticancer and antibacterial applications,
systematic analysis of various synthetic ap- and surface biomarkers found in cancer and
proaches, luminescence mechanisms, surface bacterial cells.
engineering methods, and their biomedical In summary, this book serves as a prin-
applications, focused on multimodality im- cipal source for photonanotechnology. It of-
aging and PDT. They conclude with chal- fers a large body of knowledge and
lengesandoutlooksforfuturedevelopments. references collected about photoactive
Chapter 8 continues the discussion of nanomaterials in the aspects of design, syn-
multifunctional UCNs from a broad thesis, characterization, therapeutic effects,
perspective. The authors present basic the- and imaging modalities in vitro and in vivo.
ories about luminescence, methods for syn- The editor believes that this book provides
thesis and modification, and applications in significant benefits to readers in diverse
bioimaging, therapeutics, and theranostics. areas in chemistry, biological sciences, ma-
Chapter 9 discusses the design of photo- terials sciences, engineering (chemical,
cleavable linkers used in drug conjugation. biomedical, macromolecular), pharmaceu-
The author provides a comprehensive sur- tical sciences, and applied physics (pho-
vey of linker principles, the mechanistic as- tonics) as well as medicine more broadly.
pects of linker cleavage, and drug Lastly, as a most important note, the edi-
conjugation methods for light-controlled torwouldliketothankeachprimarychapter
drug delivery. author and contributing coauthor for their
Chapter 10 addresses challenges in the valuable time and significant efforts in the
developmentofphotocontrollednanosystems timely completion of their chapters. Initial
with folate receptor (FAR)-targeted den- book reviewers clearly deserve credit for the
drimer for anticancer drug delivery. The foundation of this book. Their contribution
authorvalidatesspecificdesignprinciplesfor helpedexpanditsscope,quality,andimpact.
photoreleasable drugedendrimer conjugates The editor is also thankful to the publisher,
applied to anticancer therapeutic agents. Elsevier, and its editorial board including
Chapter 11 describes multifunctional Dr. Peter Adamson and Mr. Simon Holt for
nanoplatforms developed for antibacterial their dedicated supports over the years.
therapy. The author presents bacterial tar- Editor
gets, multivalent ligand design for bacteria
Seok Ki Choi, PhD
targeting,andvariousphotoactiveplatforms
Associate Professor
validated for light-controlled delivery of
Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for
antibacterial activity.
Medicine and Biological Sciences, and
Chapter 12 describes UCN-based thera-
Department of Internal Medicine,
nostic systems for NIR-controlled drug
University of Michigan Medical School,
release. The authors present their design
Ann Arbor, MI, United States
principles with a focus on FAR-targeted
dendrimers validated for anticancer drug
delivery.
C H A P T E R
1
Light sources for
photonanotechnology
Seok Ki Choi
Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences,
and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School,
Ann Arbor, MI, United States
O U T L I N E
1.1 Introduction 1 1.4 Nanotechnology for phototherapy:
overview 9
1.2 Basic properties of light 2
1.4.1 Light-controlled drug release 10
1.2.1 Absorption 3
1.4.2 Photothermal therapy 10
1.2.2 Scattering 3
1.4.3 Photodynamic therapy 13
1.2.3 Penetration 3
1.5 Summary 14
1.3 Division of light sources 3
1.3.1 Ultraviolet light 4 Abbreviations 14
1.3.2 Visible light 6
Acknowledgments 15
1.3.3 Near infrared light 6
References 15
1.1 Introduction
Lighthastheabilitytoinduceoralterchemical,physical,orbiologicalactivitiesincertain
classesofnanometer-sizedparticles(NPs)[1e8].SuchNPs,genericallyreferredtoasphoto-
active nanomaterials, have made significant contributions to the creation of novel applica-
tions and development in nanotechnology. Their applications are highly beneficial in a
PhotonanotechnologyforTherapeuticsandImaging 1
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817840-9.00001-1 ©2020ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
2
1. Lightsourcesforphotonanotechnology
range of fields including energy [9], chemical catalysis [9,10], sensors [9,11], therapeutics
[7,12e14], imaging [15,16], and diagnostics [17].
Light plays anactive rolein serving as anexternal stimuluswithits superb temporaland
spatial control capabilities [18e21]. It carries a broad range of activation energy, which is
tunable for activating a specific photoactive NP core or its peripheral component to induce
light-inducedoutputsuchasscattering,fluorescence,andluminescence(Fig.1.1).Useoflight
constitutes an essential component in NP detection and imaging methods [22,23]. Light
absorptionoffersanumberofmechanismsthatallowforcontrolorinducementoftherapeu-
ticeffects.TheserelatetoenablingthecontrolledreleaseofatherapeuticagentcarriedbyNP
[7], induction of localized heat in photothermal therapy (PTT), or production of cytotoxic
reactive oxygen species (ROS) in photodynamic therapy (PDT) [22e24].
Inadditiontosuchactivecontrol,usingalightstimulusoffersahighdegreeofprecisionin
the spatiotemporal control of NP activation [7,18,21,25]. These benefits are not generally
achievableinNPactivationtriggeredbyapassivestimulussuchasanendogenous,acellular,
orapathophysiologicalfactor(lowpH,enzymes,andthiols)[7].Furthermore,lightstimula-
tion offers higher precision in the spatial resolution of light exposure than other types of
external stimuli based on heat or ultrasound [26,27].
In contrast to its beneficial properties, the application of light in nanotechnology faces
certain drawbacks determined by the intrinsic properties of light. It is thus critical to under-
stand light properties and consider in the early phases of NP design. This chapter describes
light sources with a focus on three spectral regions of relevancedultraviolet (UV), visible
(Vis), and near-infrared (NIR)dand their properties and uses in light-controlled drug
delivery, PDT, and PTT.
1.2 Basic properties of light
Selection of light sources plays a fundamental role in controlling the specific functions of
photoactiveNPsbecauseonlyaspecificwavelengthoflightisbestabletotriggerorconfera
desiredeffectsuchascleavingadrug-NPlinkerfordrugrelease,activatingaphotosensitizer
molecule for PDT, or exciting a fluorescent molecule for optical imaging (Fig. 1.1).
Light Absorbance Absorbance
Emission
NP
Fluorescence
Scatterring
Luminescence Drug; ROS; Heat release
Imaging Therapeutics
FIGURE1.1
Photophysicalandphotochemicaleventsthatpertaintolightexposedtoaphotoactivenanoparticle
(NP).
3
1.3 Divisionoflightsources
1.2.1 Absorption
LightabsorptionbyasmallmoleculeoranNPoccursmostefficientlyataparticularwave-
lengthoflightdictatedbyachromophoregroupconstitutingthemoleculeorpresentedinthe
NP core. Its light absorption is defined according to the BeereLambert law (A¼ε (cid:2) l (cid:2) c)
[28]inwhichε,l,andcrefertoitsmolarabsorptivity(molarextinctioncoefficient,M(cid:3)1cm(cid:3)1)
at the specific wavelength of light, the path length of light (cm), and its concentration (M),
respectively.Thisrelatestheextentoflightabsorptiontothenumberandabsorptivityofmol-
ecules exposed along the light path.
Underbiologicalconditions,watermoleculesareabundantlypresentinserum,bloodcells,
andtissues,andtheycontributesignificantlytolightabsorption[29].Avarietyofmolecules/
macromoleculesofbiologicalabundancealsocontributetolightabsorptionandincludesmall
pigment molecules, (oxy)hemoglobin, amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids [30]. Thus,
light absorption occurring by molecules in biological media constitutes a primary factor
that can adversely influence the efficiency of light applicationsdin particular, in vivo [29].
1.2.2 Scattering
Light scattering occurs when it interacts with NPs as well as macromolecular particles,
whichareabundantinbloodcells,skinpigments,fibers,andbones[31,32].Theextentoflight
scatteringatagivenwavelength(l)variesnonlinearlytoatermofa(cid:2)(l/500nm)(cid:3)bwithan
inversecorrelationtob,inwhichaandbeachreferstoatissue-specificvalue[33].Ingeneral,
the scattering decreases as a function of wavelength (l), with higher scattering occurring at
theshorterUVandVislightwavelengthsthanatNIRwavelengths(Fig.1.2).Itisalsodepen-
dentontissuetypes,withhigherscatteringobservedinskinthaninsoftandfattytissues[33].
1.2.3 Penetration
Due to light scattering and absorption, only a certain fraction of light is able to pass
through a biological sample, while its intensity nonlinearly decreases along its path
(Fig. 1.2). The extent of light penetration is generally dependent on light wavelength
[33e35].Lightpenetrates moreeffectivelyatalongerwavelengththanashorterwavelength
asschematicallyillustratedinamodelforhumanskinstructure[36].ComparedwithUVand
Vis, NIR light (800e1000nm) shows an ability for deeper penetration, which makes it a
preferred source for optical imaging in vivo.
1.3 Division of light sources
Light sources frequently used in imaging and therapeutic activation consist of three spec-
tral regions that span UV (200e400nm), Vis (400e800nm), and a subsection of NIR
(800e1000nm) (Fig. 1.2). Each of these light sources displays a distinct set of photochemical
and photophysical properties that vary as a function of wavelength.
4
1. Lightsourcesforphotonanotechnology
FIGURE 1.2
Spectralrangeoflightsourcesfrequentlyusedinnanotechnology(top),andlightpropertiesasso-
ciatedwiththebiologicaltissue(bottom).
1.3.1 Ultraviolet light
Light in the UV zone is subdivided into three regions composed of short (UVC,
100e280nm), medium (UVB, 280e315nm), and long (UVA, 315e400nm) wavelengths.
The shortest, UVC, is the most harmful to mammalian cells because of its ability to cause
DNA damage, which makes it rarely used in biologic nanotechnology. However, it is bene-
ficial for certain applications because of its broad-spectrum cidality against bacterial patho-
gens. This is evident from the current practice of using UVC in light-based therapy to treat
wound infections. This application does not involve treatment with an antibacterial agent
but irradiation alone [37].
Compared with UVC, the two longer UV lights (UVA and UVB) cause only insignificant
cellular toxicity [38e40]. They carry high-enough energy for imaging and therapeutic appli-
cations in nanotechnology. First, fluorescent imaging experiments on photoactive NPs such
asquantumdots(QDs)[41e43],grapheneoxide(GO)[44,45],andcarbondots(CDs)involve
excitation at UVA and UVB wavelengths (Table 1.1) [23,58]. Second, these UV lights are
frequently used for ROS production in the PDT application of photosensitizers (chlorin e6
[59], protoporphyrin IX [51]) and photoactive NPs (nano-TiO [60e62], nano-ZnO [63], GO
2
nanosheet [64,65], and fullerene [66,67]). Third, they play an important role in light-
controlled drug delivery as applied in a broad range of therapeutic agents (Table 1.2)