Photodetectors : materials, devices and applications

534 Pages·2016·56.86 MB·English

by  Nabet, Bahram

Photodetectors
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Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic
and Optical Materials: Number 84
Photodetectors
Materials, Devices and Applications
Edited by
Bahram Nabet
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Dedication
To:
Zohreh,Behnam,Barzin,andBardia
List of Contributors
Arash Ahmadivand Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida
InternationalUniversity,Miami,FL,USA
John E. Bowers Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University
ofCalifornia SantaBarbara,SantaBarbara,CA,USA
Mario Caironi Center for Nano Science and Technology @PoliMi, Istituto
ItalianodiTecnologia,Milano,Italy
Francisco Castro Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Drexel
University,Philadelphia,PA,USA
Marc Currie Optical Sciences Division, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington,
DC,USA
M. Jamal Deen Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, McMaster
University,Hamilton,ON,Canada
Pouya Dianat Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Drexel
University,Philadelphia,PA,USA
Nicoleta Dinu National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), National Institute
of Nuclear and Particles Physics (IN2P3), Laboratory of Linear Accelerator (LAL),
France
Daniel Durini Forschungszentrum Ju¨lich GmbH, Central Institute of Engineering,
ElectronicsandAnalyticsZEA-2(cid:1)Electronic Systems,Ju¨lich,Germany
Yasser El-Batawy Department of Engineering Mathematics and Physics, Faculty
ofEngineering,CairoUniversity,Giza,Egypt
Hakan Karaagac Integrated Nanodevices and Nanosystems Research, Electrical
and Computer Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; Physics
Department, Faculty of Science and Letters, Istanbul Technical University,
Istanbul,Turkey
xii ListofContributors
Mustafa Karabiyik Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida
InternationalUniversity,Miami,FL,USA
Serkan Kaya Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida
InternationalUniversity,Miami,FL,USA
Guo-Qiang Lo Institute of Microelectronics, The Agency for Science, Technology
andResearch(A*STAR),Singapore
Farseem M. Mohammedy Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
BangladeshUniversityofEngineeringandTechnology,Dhaka,Bangladesh
Bahram Nabet Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Drexel
University,Philadelphia,PA,USA
Tadao Nagatsuma Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University,
Osaka,Japan
Dario Natali Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria,
Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy; Center for Nano Science and Technology
@PoliMi,IstitutoItalianodiTecnologia,Milano,Italy
Matthew M. Ombaba Integrated Nanodevices and Nanosystems Research,
ElectricalandComputerEngineering,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,CA,USA
Nezih Pala Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida
InternationalUniversity,Miami,FL,USA
Uwe Paschen Fraunhofer Institute for Microelectronic Circuits and Systems,
Duisburg,Germany
Molly Piels Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
CaliforniaSantaBarbara,SantaBarbara,CA,USA
KazimG.Polat IntegratedNanodevicesandNanosystemsResearch,Electricaland
ComputerEngineering,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,CA,USA
M. Saif Islam Integrated Nanodevices and Nanosystems Research, Electrical and
ComputerEngineering,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,CA,USA
Alexander Schwinger Fraunhofer Institute for Microelectronic Circuits and
Systems,Duisburg,Germany
Amro Anwar Seddik Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Drexel
University,Philadelphia,PA,USA
ListofContributors xiii
Y.-W.Song KoreaInstituteofScienceandTechnology(KIST),Seoul,SouthKorea
Andreas Spickermann Fraunhofer Institute for Microelectronic Circuits and
Systems,Duisburg,Germany
Xia Zhao Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Drexel University,
Philadelphia,PA,USA
Shiyang Zhu Institute of Microelectronics, The Agency for Science, Technology
andResearch(A*STAR),Singapore
Preface
UNESCO has declared 2015 to be the international year of light. The National
Research Council (NRC) took note of this designation in an important report in
August 20121 stating that: “Optics and photonics technologies are central (our
emphasis) to modern life.” The carefully chosen word “central” is not a hyperbole;
the incandescent light bulb extended the daylight and made the transition from an
agrarian to industrial society possible in the early 1800s. As the Nobel Committee
noted in 2014: “Incandescent light bulbs lit the 20th century; the 21st century will
be lit by LED lamps” justifying the award of a Nobel Prize to the inventors of blue
LED for itsimmensesocietal impact,affecting the quality oflife ofover 1.5 billion
people.2 The NRC report foreshadows this award: “(Solar power generation and)
new efficient lighting, for example, could transform the (global) energy landscape.”
The impact of this transformation is tremendous given that presently one-quarter of
theworld’s energygoestolighting.2,3Thesamereportacknowledgesthatitistech-
nically possible to meet all of the United States’ energy needs by harnessing solar
energy.
As important aslighting and energy generation are, they only representa portion
of the reach of photonic technologies; photonics is an essential engine of the infor-
mation age, supporting the exponential growth of the internet. As Charles Kao’s
noted in his 2009 Nobel Prize Lecture awarded for his work in optical fiber com-
munications,4 “the work (on fiber optics) has fundamentally transformed the way
we live our daily lives.” While here Kao mentions communication of information,
together with storage and computation they form a “grand challenge” of the infor-
mationage.Infact,thecyber-infrastructurehasbecomeasimportantasthephysical
one.Forexampledata centerscurrentlyconsume1.5%ofglobal energyproduction,
and up to approximately 4% of the United States’, energy produced. Though pres-
ently small,a1000timesincreaseinthevolume ofdataispredictedby2025,while
computing efficiency will increase 25 times in the same period.5 Photonics has a
keyroleinmeeting thisgrand challenge, butitneeds tobeintegratedwithelectron-
ics, which is silicon based. In order to achieve energy efficient computing, for
1NationalResearchCouncil,OpticsandPhotonics:EssentialTechnologiesforourNation.TheNational
AcademiesPress,Washington,DC,ISBN0-309-26337-8.
2http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2014/popular-physicsprize2014.pdf.
3Zheludev,N.,2007.ThelifeandtimesoftheLED(cid:1)a100-yearhistory.Nat.Photonics1.
4Kao,C.K.,2009.SandfromCenturiesPast:SendFutureVoicesFast.NobelLecture.http://www.nobel-
prize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2009/kao_lecture.pdf.
5Hilbert,M.,Lopez,P., 2011.Theworld’stechnologicalcapacity tostore,communicate,andcompute
information.Science332(6025),60(cid:1)65.
xvi Preface
systems from datacenters down to mobile electronics, novel devices, techniques,
and methodologies are necessary to reduce the terawatts of power consumed by
computationaldevicesthataretheenginesoftheinformationage.6
This book covers an important device in this chain, namely, the photodetector
(PD)whichtransferstheinformationcarriedbyphotonstoelectrons.Itisthennatu-
ral to start with optical detectors heterogeneously integrated with silicon photonics.
The next chapter addresses the limitations of transit time and energy requirements
in high speed PDs, offering a design in which these charge transport limitations
may be circumvented using confined two-dimensional electron and hole gasses.
This is followed by two- and one-dimensional graphene and carbon nanotube,
respectively, photonic devices in Chapter 3, with the following chapter expanding
on the 1D theme with a review of nanowire enabled photodetection schemes which
include CMOS compatible mass-manufacturable device fabrication. Chapter 5
reviewslow-temperaturegrownGaAs(LT-GaAs)deviceswiththeirultrahighspeed
response, which can be used in THz emitters and receivers; a hybrid LT/Regular
temperature GaAs PD is demonstrated that achieves both high speed and high effi-
ciency. Chapter 6 is a comprehensive review of the optical and electrical properties
of plasmonic PDs in the spectral range of UV to the near infrared (NIR). Organic
PD’s are part of the emerging organic optoelectronics. Chapter 7 reviews this field
with emphasis given to devices completely developed by means of scalable,
solution-based processes addressing integrated transceivers and imagers. Silicon
photomultipliertubesarediscussedinthenextchapter.
Part two of the book concentrates on applications of PDs. Chapter 9 covers high
frequency microwave, millimeter-wave (MMW) and terahertz (THz) photonics,
which covers electromagnetic regions from 100GHz to 10THz, focusing on PDs
employed in wireless communications, spectroscopy, electric-field measurements,
and imaging. The next chapter discusses the key building blocks for silicon inte-
grated photonic circuits for communication applications operating in the telecom
spectral band of 1.3(cid:1)1.6µm. Silicon based single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD)
technology is used for low-light and high-speed applications as reviewed in
Chapter 11; near single-photon counting and time responses in nanosecond or sub-
nanosecondregions arereported.Thenextchapter summarizesthe operation princi-
ples and the current state of the art of THz detectors in both pulsed time domain
(PTD) and continuous wave (CW) modalities. A comprehensive review and analy-
sis of resonant cavity enhanced (RCE) PDs is offered in Chapter 13. Finally, a
novel photodetection scheme is described in Chapter 14 in which the exchange and
correlation energy terms that are associated with the quantum mechanical
many-body interactions ofa2D charge systemare manipulated throughlight gener-
atedcarriersresultinginagiantenhancementincapacitance.
I am very grateful to the contributors who shared their considerable expertise
despite much demand on their time, and whose collective work has resulted in a
6Miller,D.A.B.,2009.Devicerequirementsforopticalinterconnectstosiliconchips.In:Proc.IEEE97,
pp.1166(cid:1)1185.Asghari,M.,Krishnamoorthy,A.V.,2011.Siliconphotonics:energyefficientcommu-
nication.Nat.Photonics5,268(cid:1)270.