Phosphorus management in crop production

375 Pages·2017·8.393 MB·English

by  Nand Kumar Fageria, Zhenli He, Virupax C. Baligar

Phosphorus Management
in Crop Production

Phosphorus Management
in Crop Production
Nand Kumar Fageria
National Rice and Bean Research Center of EMBRAPA, Brazil
Zhenli L. He
University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Science,
Indian River Research and Education Center, USA
Virupax C. Baligar
USDA-ARS – Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, USA
CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Fageria, N. K., 1942- author. | He, Zhenli, author. | Baligar, V. C.,
author.
Title: Phosphorus management in crop production/authors: Nand Kumar
Fageria, Zhenli L. He, Virupax C. Baligar.
Description: Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016036026 | ISBN 9781498705868 (hardback: alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Phosphorus in agriculture.
Classification: LCC S587.5.P56 F34 2017 | DDC 631.8/5--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016036026
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Contents
Preface ...............................................................................................................................................xi
Authors ............................................................................................................................................xiii
Chapter 1 World Phosphate Situation and Factors Affecting Phosphorus Availability
to Plants in Soil ............................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................1
1.2 Historical Overview ...........................................................................................7
1.3 World Phosphate Rock Reserves and Resources ...............................................8
1.4 Mineralogy of Phosphate Rocks ......................................................................11
1.5 Glossary of Phosphorus-Related Terms...........................................................11
1.6 Cycle in Soil–Plant System .............................................................................15
1.7 Organic Phosphorus in Soils ............................................................................18
1.8 Inorganic Phosphorus in Soils .........................................................................19
1.9 Reaction of Phosphorus Fertilizers in Soil ......................................................19
1.10 Evaluation and Utilization of Residual Phosphorus in Soils ...........................20
1.11 Factors Influencing Phosphorus Availability to Plants ....................................22
1.11.1 Climatic Factors .................................................................................22
1.11.1.1 Precipitation ........................................................................22
1.11.1.2 Temperature ........................................................................24
1.11.2 Soil Factors .........................................................................................26
1.11.2.1 Aeration and Compaction ...................................................26
1.11.2.2 Concentration and Forms of Soil Phosphorus ....................27
1.11.2.3 Soil pH ................................................................................28
1.11.2.4 Presence of Aluminum and Iron Oxides .............................29
1.11.3 Plant Factors .......................................................................................30
1.11.3.1 Release of Organic and Inorganic Compounds
in the Rhizosphere ..............................................................30
1.11.3.2 Crop Species/Genotypes within Species ............................31
1.11.3.3 Colonization of Rhizosphere by Plant
Growth–Promoting Rhizobacteria ......................................35
1.11.3.4 Mycorrhiza Fungi Symbiosis by Plant Roots .....................36
1.11.3.5 Phosphatase Activity in the Rhizosphere ............................37
1.12 Conclusions .....................................................................................................37
References ..................................................................................................................37
Chapter 2 Functions of Phosphorus in Crop Plants ....................................................................47
2.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................47
2.2 Functions .........................................................................................................48
2.2.1 Morphological Functions ...................................................................49
2.2.1.1 Plant Height ........................................................................50
2.2.1.2 Tillering ..............................................................................52
2.2.1.3 Shoot Dry Weight ...............................................................53
2.2.1.4 Leaf Area Index ..................................................................60
2.2.1.5 Root Growth .......................................................................61
2.2.1.6 Yield and Yield Components and Related Traits ................67
v
vi Contents
2.2.2 Physiological Functions .....................................................................77
2.2.2.1 Essential for Photosynthesis ...............................................77
2.2.2.2 Improves Grain Harvest Index ............................................78
2.2.2.3 Positive Interactions with Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and
Potassium Fertilization .......................................................79
2.2.2.4 Improves Grain Quality ......................................................81
2.2.2.5 Accelerates Grain Maturation .............................................81
2.2.3 Biochemical Functions .......................................................................84
2.2.3.1 Role in Plant Metabolisms ..................................................84
2.2.3.2 Role in Energy Transfer Processes .....................................85
2.2.3.3 Role in Plant Structure ........................................................85
2.2.3.4 Improves Biological Nitrogen Fixation ..............................85
2.3 Conclusions .....................................................................................................86
References ..................................................................................................................86
Chapter 3 Diagnostic Techniques for Phosphorus Requirements in Crop Plants .......................91
3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................91
3.2 Phosphorus Deficiency, Sufficiency, and Toxicity Diagnostic Techniques .....93
3.2.1 Visual Deficiency Symptoms .............................................................94
3.2.2 Visual Toxicity Symptoms .................................................................99
3.2.3 Soil Test ............................................................................................105
3.2.4 Plant Tissue Test ...............................................................................106
3.3 Phosphorus Concentration in Plants ..............................................................107
3.4 Phosphorus Uptake in Plants .........................................................................112
3.5 Phosphorus Harvest Index .............................................................................117
3.6 Phosphorus Requirements of Cereals ............................................................118
3.6.1 Rice ...................................................................................................119
3.6.1.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Rice Plant Tissues ...........119
3.6.1.2 Adequate Phosphorus Fertilizer Rate ...............................119
3.6.2 Wheat and Barley .............................................................................121
3.6.2.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Wheat and Barley
Plant Tissues and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus
Fertilizer ............................................................................122
3.6.3 Corn ..................................................................................................123
3.6.3.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Corn Plant Tissues and
Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer ..........................124
3.6.4 Sorghum ...........................................................................................125
3.6.4.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Sorghum Plant Tissues
and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer ...................125
3.7 Phosphorus Requirement of Legumes ...........................................................126
3.7.1 Dry Bean...........................................................................................127
3.7.1.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Dry Bean Plant Tissues
and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer ...................127
3.7.2 Soybean ............................................................................................127
3.7.2.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Soybean Plant Tissues
and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer ...................129
3.7.3 Peanuts .............................................................................................129
3.7.3.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Soybean Plant Tissues
and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer ...................130
Contents vii
3.8 Phosphorus Nutrition of Cotton, Sugarcane, and Sugar Beet........................131
3.8.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Cotton, Sugarcane, and Sugar
Beet Plant Tissues and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer .....131
3.9 Phosphorus Nutrition of Tuber and Root Crops ............................................134
3.9.1 Adequate Phosphorus Level in Potato, Cassava, and Sweet
Potato Plant Tissues and Soil Test to Apply Phosphorus Fertilizer ......135
3.10 Conclusions ...................................................................................................136
References ................................................................................................................137
Chapter 4 Phosphorus Use Efficiency in Crop Plants ...............................................................143
4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................143
4.2 Definition of Mineral Nutrient Efficiency and Nutrient-Efficient Plants ......144
4.3 Type of Phosphorus Use Efficiency and Mathematical Equations
for Their Calculation .....................................................................................144
4.3.1 Experimental Results ........................................................................146
4.4 Phosphorus Use Efficiency versus Crop Yield...............................................155
4.5 Mechanisms Responsible for Variation in Phosphorus Use Efficiency
in Crop Plants ................................................................................................155
4.5.1 Root Geometry .................................................................................158
4.5.2 Higher Rate of Nutrient Absorption at Low Rhizosphere
Concentrations ..................................................................................159
4.5.3 Ability of Plant to Solubilize Nutrients in the Rhizosphere .............160
4.5.4 Better Distribution and Utilization of Nutrients within Plants .........161
4.5.5 Allocation of Dry Matter within Plants ............................................162
4.5.6 Balanced Source and Sink Relationship ...........................................162
4.6 Breeding Crop Species/Genotypes for Improved Phosphorus Use
Efficiency .......................................................................................................163
4.7 Enhancing Phosphorus Use Efficiency in Crop Species/Genotypes .............165
4.7.1 Improving Climatic Factors ..............................................................165
4.7.2 Improving Soil Factors .....................................................................166
4.7.3 Improving Plant Factors ...................................................................167
4.7.4 Improving Biological Factors ...........................................................167
4.7.4.1 Mycorrhizae ......................................................................167
4.7.4.2 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) ..............168
4.8 Molecular and Genetic Approach to Improve Phosphorus Use Efficiency ...168
4.9 Conclusions ...................................................................................................169
References ................................................................................................................169
Chapter 5 Phosphorus Interactions with Other Nutrients .........................................................177
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................177
5.2 Phosphorus Interactions with Macronutrients ...............................................178
5.2.1 Phosphorus versus Nitrogen .............................................................178
5.2.2 Phosphorus versus Potassium ...........................................................182
5.2.3 Phosphorus versus Calcium ..............................................................189
5.2.4 Phosphorus versus Magnesium ........................................................193
5.2.5 Phosphorus versus Sulfur .................................................................194
5.3 Phosphorus versus Micronutrients.................................................................195
5.3.1 Phosphorus versus Zinc ....................................................................196
5.3.2 Phosphorus versus Copper ...............................................................199
viii Contents
5.3.3 Phosphorus versus Manganese .........................................................199
5.3.4 Phosphorus versus Iron ....................................................................200
5.3.5 Phosphorus versus Boron .................................................................201
5.3.6 Phosphorus versus Molybdenum ......................................................202
5.3.7 Phosphorus versus Chlorine .............................................................202
5.3.8 Phosphorus versus Nickel ................................................................203
5.3.9 Phosphorus versus Soil Salinity .......................................................203
5.4 Conclusions ...................................................................................................206
References ................................................................................................................207
Chapter 6 Phosphorus and the Environment .............................................................................211
6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................211
6.2 Transport of Phosphorus from Agricultural Lands to Aquatic Environments ....212
6.2.1 Phosphorus Sorption ........................................................................213
6.2.2 Phosphorus Desorption ....................................................................213
6.2.3 Phosphorus Leaching .......................................................................214
6.2.4 Detachment and Transport of Particulate Phosphorus .....................215
6.2.5 Changes in Phosphate Forms during Transport ................................216
6.2.6 Amount of Phosphorus Loss from Landscape to Aquatic
Environments ....................................................................................216
6.2.7 Impact of Phosphorus on the Environment ......................................217
6.2.8 Reclamation of Aquatic/Soil Environment Contaminated
with Excess Phosphorus ...................................................................219
6.3 Management Practices to Reduce Phosphorus Loss from Soil–Plant
System ...........................................................................................................220
6.3.1 Control of Soil Erosion ....................................................................220
6.3.2 Adequate Phosphorus Rate ...............................................................221
6.3.3 Agronomic and Environmental Soil P Tests .....................................221
6.3.4 Conservation Tillage .........................................................................222
6.3.5 Cover Crops ......................................................................................223
6.3.6 Diet Manipulation to Reduce Phosphorus in Animal Wastes ...........223
6.3.7 Manure Management ........................................................................225
6.3.8 Recovery of Precipitated Phosphorus from Wastes ..........................226
6.3.9 Thermal Drying of Sewage Sludge ..................................................226
6.3.10 Use of Buffers ..................................................................................226
6.3.11 Grass Waterways ..............................................................................227
6.3.12 Irrigation Management .....................................................................227
6.3.13 Streambank Protection .....................................................................227
6.3.14 Phosphorus Index .............................................................................228
6.3.15 Fertilizer and Manure Application Methods and Timing .................230
6.4 Conclusions ...................................................................................................230
References ................................................................................................................231
Chapter 7 Management Practices for Optimizing Phosphorus Availability to Crop Plants ......239
7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................239
7.2 Soil Management ...........................................................................................239
7.2.1 Liming Acid Soils .............................................................................239
7.2.1.1 Beneficial Effects of Liming .............................................240
7.2.1.2 Improves Crop Yields .......................................................240
Contents ix
7.2.1.3 Improves Soil Chemical Properties ..................................245
7.2.1.4 Reducing Phosphorus Immobilization ..............................248
7.2.1.5 Improving Activities of Beneficial Microorganisms .........249
7.2.1.6 Reducing Solubility and Leaching of Heavy Metals ........250
7.2.1.7 Improve Soil Structure ......................................................250
7.2.1.8 Improving Nutrient Use Efficiency ...................................251
7.2.1.9 Control of Plant Diseases ..................................................251
7.2.1.10 Mitigation of Nitrous Oxide Emission from Soils ............252
7.2.1.11 Acid-Tolerant Crop Species and Genotypes
within Species ...................................................................252
7.2.2 Gypsum ............................................................................................258
7.2.3 Organic Manures ..............................................................................262
7.2.3.1 Municipal Biosolids ..........................................................263
7.2.3.2 Animal Manures ...............................................................264
7.2.3.3 Compost ............................................................................266
7.2.3.4 Green Manuring ................................................................267
7.2.4 Control of Soil Erosion ....................................................................274
7.3 Fertilizer Management ...................................................................................275
7.3.1 Efficient Phosphorus Source ............................................................275
7.3.2 Efficient Method of Application .......................................................294
7.3.3 Adopting Appropriate Time of Application .....................................295
7.3.4 Adequate Phosphorus Rate ...............................................................295
7.4 Crop Management .........................................................................................297
7.4.1 Crop Rotation ...................................................................................298
7.4.2 Conservation Tillage .........................................................................299
7.4.3 Supply of Adequate Moisture/Improve Water Use Efficiency .........300
7.4.4 Efficient Crop Species/Genotypes ....................................................300
7.4.5 Control of Diseases, Insects, and Weeds ..........................................303
7.5 Conclusions ...................................................................................................303
References ................................................................................................................303
Chapter 8 Phosphorus Nutrition Research in Crop Plants: Basic Principles
and Methodology ......................................................................................................317
8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................317
8.2 Research under Controlled Conditions ..........................................................317
8.2.1 Experimental Procedure and Techniques .........................................318
8.2.1.1 Soil Culture .......................................................................319
8.2.1.2 Solution Culture ................................................................323
8.3 Research under Field Conditions ...................................................................337
8.3.1 Basic Considerations for Conducting Field Experimentation ..........338
8.3.1.1 Hypothesis and Objectives ................................................338
8.3.1.2 Selection of Appropriate Site ............................................338
8.3.1.3 Land Preparation ...............................................................339
8.3.1.4 Plot Size, Shape, and Orientation .....................................339
8.3.1.5 Experimental Design ........................................................340
8.3.1.6 Selection of the Treatments ..............................................341
8.3.1.7 Sowing ..............................................................................342
8.3.1.8 Cultural Practices ..............................................................342
8.3.1.9 Data Collection .................................................................342
8.3.1.10 Harvesting .........................................................................345