Table Of ContentPhilosophy
in the Classroom
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Philosophy
in the Classroom
Second Edition
Matthew Lipman
Ann Margaret Sharp
Frederick S. Oscanyan
Temple University Press
Philadelphia
Copyrighted Material
Temple University Press, Philadelphia 19122
© 1980 by Temple University. All rights reserved
Published 1980
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging In Publication Data
Lipman, Matthew.
Philosophy in the classroom.
Bibliography: p.
I. Curriculum planning. 2. Education-Philosophy.
/. Sharp, Ann Margaret, 1942- joint author.
II. Oscanyan, Frederick S., joint author. III. Title.
LB1570.L57 1980 370'.1 80-12157
ISBN 0-87722-177-4
ISBN 0-87722-183-9 (pbk.)
Photographs: Joseph B. Isaacson
Portions of Chapter I first appeared in The Social Studies, published by Heldref Publications,
Washington, D.C., and are reprinted by permission. Chapter 4 is reprinted by the permission of
the publisher from The Oxford Review of Education 4, no. I (1980).
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Contents
Preface Xl
I. Encouraging Children to Be Thoughtful
1. The Need for Educational Redesign 3
Educational Dysfunction 3
Failure of Remedial Approaches 4
Meeting Expectations 5
Discovery 6
Frustration 7
Meaningful Experiences 8
Need for Adventure 9
Meaning versus Rationality II
2. Thinking and the School Curriculum 12
The Child's Hunger for Meaning 12
Thinking Skillfully 13
Thinking Skills and Basic Skills 16
Reading to Find Meanings 16
Reasoning as a Foundational Skill 18
Thinking Skills and Other Academic Disciplines 20
The Relationship between Dialogue and Thinking 22
Thinking Well about Things That Matter 25
3. Philosophy: The Lost Dimension in Education 31
Philosophy Begins in Wonder 31
Wonder and Meaning 32
Scientific Explanation 33
Symbolic Interpretation 34
Philosophical Investigation 36
Metaphysical Questions 36
Logical Questions 38
Ethical Questions 39
v
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Contents
VI
4. Some Educational Presuppositions of Philosophy for Children 41
Preserving the Integrity of Philosophy as a Discipline 43
Converting the Classroom into a Community
of Inquiry 45
Preparing the Teacher and the Curriculum 46
II. Aims and Methods of Philosophy for Children
5. The Philosophy for Children Curriculum 51
Description of Curriculum 51
Aims and Objectives of Philosophy for Children 53
Improvement of Reasoning Ability 54
The Origins of Reasoning 54
Reasoning in Childhood 57
Reasoning and Inference 62
Development of Creativity 64
Personal and Interpersonal Growth 65
Development of Ethical Understanding 66
Development of the Ability to Find Meaning
in Experience 67
Discovering Alternatives 68
Discovering Impartiality 69
Discovering Consistency 71
Discovering the Feasibility of Giving Reasons for
Beliefs 73
Discovering Comprehensiveness 74
Discovering Situations 75
Discovering Part-Whole Relationships 77
6. Teaching Methodology: Value Considerations and Standards
of Practice 82
Getting Children to Think for Themselves 82
Conditions for Teaching Philosophical Thinking 84
Commitment to Philosophical Inquiry 84
Avoidance of Indoctrination 85
Respect for Children's Opinions 87
Evocation of Children's Trust 88
Teaching Behavior Conducive to Helping Children
Engage in Philosophical Thinking 89
Maintaining Relevance 90
Questioning 92
Answering 97
Listening 98
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Contents vii
Non-verbal Teacher-Student Communication 99
The Teacher as the Child's Model 100
7. Guiding a Philosophical Discussion 102
Philosophy and the Strategies of Dialogue 102
Guiding a Classroom Discussion 104
The Role of Ideas in a Philosophical Dialogue 106
Scientific Discussions 106
Discussions about Religious Beliefs 106
Philosophical Discussions 108
How Is Philosophy Related to Science
Education? 109
Fostering Philosophical Dialogue 110
Discussions, Good Discussions, and
Philosophical Discussions 110
Drawing Students Out ll3
Eliciting Views or Opinions ll3
Helping Students Express Themselves: Clarification
and Restatement ll4
Explicating Students' Views ll5
Interpretation 115
Inferring Logical Implications ll6
Inferring What Is Suggested ll6
Seeking Consistency 117
Requesting Definitions 1I8
Searching for Assumptions ll9
Indicating Fallacies 120
Requesting Reasons 121
Asking Students to Say How They Know 122
Eliciting and Examining Alternatives 123
Orchestrating a Discussion 124
Grouping Ideas 126
Suggesting Possible Lines of Convergence
or Divergence 127
Moving Discussions to Higher Levels of
Generality 128
III. Applying Thinking Skills to School Experience
8. Encouraging Children to Be Logical 131
Formal Logic as an Aid to Philosophical Thinking 131
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viii Contents
How Can Formal Logic Help? 131
Why Syllogistic? 133
Relevant Properties of Formal Systems 135
Consistency 135
Logical Consequence 135
Coherence 137
Ages and Stages: Why Syllogistic between Ten
and Fourteen? 138
Giving Reasons: The Good Reasons Approach 138
Types of Inferences 139
Characteristics of a Search for Reasons 141
Characteristics of Good Reasons 143
Teaching Good Reasons Logic 144
Acting Rationally 146
Role Models: Styles of Thinking 147
Guides for Reasonable Behavior 148
Conclusion 151
9. Can Moral Education Be Divorced from Philosophical Inquiry? 153
The Presumption of Rationality 153
Setting the Stage for Moral Growth 154
Socialization and Autonomy in Moral Education 157
Dangerous Dichotomies in Moral Education 159
What to Do to Help the Child Know What to Do 165
Imagination and Moral Education 166
Imagining Means-End Connections 168
Imagining Part-Whole Connections 168
The Role of Models in Moral Imagination l70
Where to Begin l71
Why Moral Education Cannot Be Divorced from
Philosophical Education 172
The Relationship between Logic and Morality 178
The Improvement of Moral Judgment 183
10. Philosophical Themes in Ethical Inquiry for Children 188
The Relation of Logic to Ethics 190
Consistency 191
The Right and the Fair 193
Perfect and Right 194
Free Will and Determinism 195
Natural 196
Change and Growth 197
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Contents IX
Truth 198
Caring 199
Standards and Rules 200
Questions and Answers 201
Thinking and Thinking for Oneself in Ethical Inquiry 203
Appendix A. The Reform of Teacher Education 207
Appendix B. Experimental Research in Philosophy for Children 217
Bibliography 225
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