Petroleum Production Engineering

749 Pages·2017·41.447 MB·English

by  Boyun Guo, PhD, Xinghui "Lou" Liu and Xuehao Tan (Auth.)

Petroleum Production
Engineering
Second Edition
Petroleum Production
Engineering
Second Edition
Boyun Guo, PhD
Xinghui Liu, PhD
Xuehao Tan, PhD
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Dedication
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(cid:1)Boyun Guo
List of Figures
Figure1.1 Asketchofasimplepetroleumproductionsystem 4
Figure1.2 Asketchofatypicalflowingoilwell 5
Figure1.3 Asketchofawellhead 5
Figure1.4 Asketchofacasinghead 6
Figure1.5 Asketchofatubinghead 7
Figure1.6 Asketchofa“Christmastree” 7
Figure1.7 Asketchofasurfacevalve 8
Figure1.8 Asketchofawellheadchoke 8
Figure1.9 Usesofoffshoreflowlinesandpipelines 10
Figure1.10 Safetydevicesymbols 12
Figure1.11 Safetysystemdesignsforsurfacewellheadflowlines 13
Figure1.12 Safetysystemdesignsforunderwaterwellheadflowlines 15
Figure1.13 Safetysystemdesignforpressurevessel 15
Figure1.14 Safetysystemdesignforpipelinepumps 16
Figure1.15 Safetysystemdesignforotherpumps 16
Figure3.1 Asketchofaradialflowreservoirmodel:(A)lateralview,(B)topview 38
Figure3.2 Asketchofareservoirwithaconstant-pressureboundary 39
Figure3.3 Asketchofareservoirwithno-flowboundaries 40
Figure3.4 (A):Shapefactorsforcloseddrainageareaswithlow-aspectratios.(B):Shapefactors 41
forcloseddrainageareaswithhigh-aspectratios
Figure3.5 Relationshipbetweenfractureconductivityandequivalentskinfactor 44
Figure3.6 Areservoirsectiondrainedbyamultifracturedhorizontalwellbore 47
Figure3.7 Fluidlowinafracturetoahorizontalwellbore 47
Figure3.8 Schematicofatypicalrootwell 50
Figure3.9 Schematicofareservoirsectiondrainedbyafishbonewell 51
Figure3.10 AtypicalIPRcurveforanoilwell 54
Figure3.11 TransientIPRcurveforExampleProblem3.2 56
Figure3.12 Steady-stateIPRcurveforExampleProblem3.2 56
Figure3.13 Pseudo-steady-stateIPRcurveforExampleProblem3.2 57
Figure3.14 IPRcurveforExampleProblem3.3 60
Figure3.15 GeneralizedVogelIPRmodelforpartialtwo-phasereservoirs 60
Figure3.16 IPRcurveforExampleProblem3.4 62
Figure3.17 IPRcurvesforExampleProblem3.5,WellA 64
Figure3.18 IPRcurvesforExampleProblem3.5,WellB 65
Figure3.19 IPRcurvesforExampleProblem3.6 67
Figure3.20 IPRcurvesofindividuallayersinExampleProblem3.7 71
Figure3.21 CompositeIPRcurveforallthelayersopentoflowinExampleProblem3.7 72
Figure3.22 CompositeIPRcurveforGroup2(LayersB4,C1,andC2)inExampleProblem3.7 72
Figure3.23 CompositeIPRcurveforGroup3(LayersB1,A4,andA5)inExampleProblem3.7 73
Figure3.24 IPRcurvesforExampleProblem3.8 75
xix
xx List of Figures
Figure3.25 IPRcurvesforExampleProblem3.9 78
Figure4.1 Flowalongatubingstring 84
Figure4.2 Darcy—Wiesbachfrictionfactordiagram 86
Figure4.3 CalculatedtubingpressureprofilefortheExampleProblem4.2 91
Figure4.4 Flowregimesingas-liquidflow 96
Figure4.5 PressuretraversegivenbyHagedornBrownCorreltion.xlsforExampleProblem4.6 106
Figure5.1 Atypicalchokeperformancecurve 112
Figure5.2 Chokeflowcoefficientfornozzle-typechokes 113
Figure5.3 Chokeflowcoefficientfororifice-typechokes 114
Figure6.1 Nodesinanoilandgasproductionsystem 130
Figure6.2 NodalanalysisfortheExampleProblem6.1 134
Figure6.3 NodalanalysisforExampleProblem6.4 140
Figure6.4 NodalanalysisforExampleProblem6.6 145
Figure6.5 NodalanalysisforExampleProblem6.8 148
Figure6.6 NodalanalysisforExampleProblem6.9 152
Figure6.7 NodalanalysisforExampleProblem6.10 153
Figure6.8 NodalanalysisforExampleProblem6.11 156
Figure6.9 NodalanalysisforExampleProblem6.12 158
Figure6.10 NodalanalysisforExampleProblem6.13 160
Figure6.11 Asimplifiedwellstructureforroottypemultilateralwells 162
Figure6.12 Symbolsusedtodescribearoottypemultilateralwell 162
Figure7.1 NodalanalysisplotforExampleProblem7.1 181
Figure7.2 ProductionforecastforExampleProblem7.1 181
Figure7.3 NodalanalysisplotforExampleProblem7.2 184
Figure7.4 ProductionforecastforExampleProblem7.2 185
Figure7.5 ProductionforecastforExampleProblem7.3 189
Figure7.6 ResultofproductionforecastforExampleProblem7.4 192
Figure7.7 Completionmodelsofamulti-stagefracturedhorizontaloilwellintheUpperEagle 193
Ford:(A)onefracturecreatedfromeachclusterofperforations,and(B)threefractures/
branchescreatedfromeachclusterofperforations
Figure7.8 Productionforecastbyreservoirsimulationforamulti-stagefracturedhorizontalwell 193
inashaleoilreservoir
Figure8.1 Asemi-logplotofqversustindicatinganexponentialdecline 204
Figure8.2 AplotofNpversusqindicatinganexponentialdecline 205
Figure8.3 Aplotoflog(q)versuslog(t)indicatingaharmonicdecline 205
Figure8.4 AplotofNpversuslog(q)indicatingaharmonicdecline 206
Figure8.5 Aplotofrelativedeclinerateversusproductionrate 206
Figure8.6 Procedurefordetermininga-andb-values 207
Figure8.7 Aplotoflog(q)versustshowinganexponentialdecline 208
Figure8.8 Relativedeclinerateplotshowingexponentialdecline 209
Figure8.9 Projectedproductionratebyanexponentialdeclinemodel 209
Figure8.10 Relativedeclinerateplotshowingharmonicdecline 210
Figure8.11 Projectedproductionratebyaharmonicdeclinemodel 211
Figure8.12 Relativedeclinerateplotshowinghyperbolicdecline 212
List of Figures xxi
Figure8.13 Relativedeclinerateshotshowinghyperbolicdecline 212
Figure8.14 Projectedproductionratebyahyperbolicdeclinemodel 213
Figure9.1 Wellhead-tubing-packerrelation 220
Figure9.2 Effectoftensionstressontangentialstress 223
Figure9.3 Tubing–packerrelation 228
Figure9.4 (A)Ballooningand(B)bucklingeffects 229
Figure9.5 Teethonmechanicalpackers 233
Figure9.6 Schematicofatensionpacker 234
Figure9.7 Asketchofacompressionpacker 234
Figure9.8 Wireline-settubingretrievablepacker.Left:setwithpluginplace;Right:setwith 235
tubingconnectedandplugretrieved
Figure9.9 Tension/compression-setversatilelanding 236
Figure9.10 Sketchofahydraulic-setsingle-stringpacker 237
Figure9.11 Anoil-swellablepackerisbeingruninacasingstring 238
Figure9.12 Typicalpacker-ratingenvelope 240
Figure10.1 Atypicalverticalseparator 245
Figure10.2 Atypicalhorizontalseparator 246
Figure10.3 Atypicalhorizontaldouble-tubeseparator 246
Figure10.4 Atypicalhorizontalthree-phaseseparator 247
Figure10.5 Atypicalsphericallow-pressureseparator 248
Figure10.6 Watercontentofnaturalgases 260
Figure10.7 Flowdiagramofatypicalsoliddesiccantdehydrationplant 262
Figure10.8 Flowdiagramofatypicalglycoldehydrator 264
Figure10.9 Gascapacityofverticalinletscrubbersbasedon0.7-specificgravityat100˚F 267
Figure10.10 Gascapacityfortrayedglycolcontactorsbasedon0.7-specificgravityat100˚F 269
Figure10.11 Gascapacityforpackedglycolcontactorsbasedon0.7-specificgravityat100˚F 270
Figure10.12 Therequiredminimumheightofpackingofapackedcontactor,ortheminimum 271
numberoftraysofatrayedcontactor
Figure11.1 Double-actionstrokeinaduplexpump 276
Figure11.2 Single-actionstrokeinatriplexpump 276
Figure11.3 Elementsofatypicalreciprocatingcompressor 281
Figure11.4 Cross-sectionofacentrifugalcompressor 282
Figure11.5 Basicpressure–volumediagram 283
Figure11.6 Flowdiagramofatwo-stagecompressionunit 288
Figure11.7 Fuelconsumptionofprimemoversusingthreetypesoffuel 290
Figure11.8 Fuelconsumptionofprimemoversusingnaturalgasasfuel 291
Figure11.9 Effectofelevationonprimemoverpower 291
Figure11.10 Darcy-Wiesbachfrictionfactorchart 299
Figure11.11 Stressesgeneratedbyinternalpressurepinathin-wallpipe,D/t.20 310
Figure11.12 Stressesgeneratedbyinternalpressurepinathick-wallpipe,D/t,20 310
Figure11.13 Calculatedtemperatureprofileswithapolyethylenelayerof0.0254M(1in.) 319
xxii List of Figures
Figure11.14 Calculatedsteady-flowtemperatureprofileswithpolyethylenelayersofvarious 320
thicknesses
Figure11.15 Calculatedtemperatureprofileswithapolypropylenelayerof0.0254M(1in.) 321
Figure11.16 Calculatedsteady-flowtemperatureprofileswithpolypropylenelayersofvarious 321
thicknesses
Figure11.17 Calculatedtemperatureprofileswithapolyurethanelayerof0.0254M(1in.) 322
Figure11.18 Calculatedsteady-flowtemperatureprofileswithpolyurethanelayersof 322
fourthicknesses
Figure12.1 Temperatureandspinnerflowmeter-derivedproductionprofile 330
Figure12.2 Notationsforahorizontalwellbore 332
Figure12.3 Measuredbottom-holepressuresandoilproductionratesduringapressure 336
drawdowntest
Figure12.4 Log-logdiagnosticplotoftestdata 337
Figure12.5 Semi-logplotforverticalradialflowanalysis 337
Figure12.6 Square-roottimeplotforpseudo-linearflowanalysis 338
Figure12.7 Semi-logplotforhorizontalpseudo-radialflowanalysis 338
Figure12.8 Matchbetweenmeasuredandmodelcalculatedpressuredata 339
Figure12.9 Gasproductionduetochannelingbehindthecasing 340
Figure12.10 Gasproductionduetopreferentialflowthroughhigh-permeabilityzones 340
Figure12.11 Gasproductionduetogasconing 341
Figure12.12 Temperatureandnoiselogsidentifyinggaschannelingbehindcasing 341
Figure12.13 Temperatureandfluiddensitylogsidentifyingagasentryzone 342
Figure12.14 Waterproductionduetochannelingbehindthecasing 342
Figure12.15 Preferentialwaterflowthroughhigh-permeabilityzones 343
Figure12.16 Waterproductionduetowaterconing 343
Figure12.17 Prefractureandpostfracturetemperaturelogsidentifyingfractureheight 344
Figure12.18 Spinnerflowmeterlogidentifyingawateredzoneatbottom 345
Figure12.19 CalculatedminimumflowrateswiththeTurneretal.modelandtestflowrates 346
Figure12.20 TheminimumflowratesgivenbytheGuoetal.modelandthetestflowrates 352
Figure12.21 Schematicofformationdamageduetofinesmigration 353
Figure12.22 Regionofformationdamagearoundawellbore 360
Figure12.23 Regionofformationdamagearoundahydraulicfracture 360
Figure13.1 Typicalacidresponsecurves 372
Figure13.2 Wormholescreatedbyaciddissolutionoflimestone 377
Figure13.3 PVbtcurves 378
Figure13.4 ConductivityofAcidfractures 382
Figure13.5 Exampleofpre-andpost-treatmentPLTdata 385
Figure14.1 Illustrationofthehydraulicfracturingprocess 390
Figure14.2 Rockdeformationunderuniaxialloading 391
Figure14.3 Threefracturemodes 393
Figure14.4 Generalstateofstressin3Dspace 395
List of Figures xxiii
Figure14.5 Conceptofeffectivestressappliedtorockgrains 397
Figure14.6 Commonfaultregimes 398
Figure14.7 Schematicviewofvarioushydraulicfracturetypes 401
Figure14.8 Schematicoffracturingfluidleakoffregions 403
Figure14.9 ThePKNfracturegeometry 409
Figure14.10 TheKGDfracturegeometry 412
Figure14.11 Typicalfracturegeometrypredictedbyalumped-parametermodel 416
Figure14.12 FracturegeometrypredictedbytwotypesofP3Dmodels 417
Figure14.13 FractureheightmigrationfromaP3Dfracturemodel 417
Figure14.14 Stressvariationvsdistanceawayfromasemi-infinitecrack 420
Figure14.15 Potentialstressshadowingeffectsonfracturepropagationinastage 420
with3perforationclustersfromahorizontalwell:(A)withoutstress
shadowingand(B)withstressshadowing
Figure14.16 Complexfracturenetworksimulatedbyanunconventionalfracturemodel 421
Figure14.17 Nonplanarfracturegeometry 422
Figure14.18 Surfacetreatingpressureresponsesfromatypicalfracturingtreatment 429
Figure14.19 NetpressureresponsebasedontheNolte-Smithanalysis 430
Figure14.20 Illustrationoffracturetortuosityandmultiplefracturesinthenear-wellborearea 433
Figure14.21 Schematicofatypicalratestep-downtest 434
Figure14.22 Illustrationofatypicalstep-ratetest 435
Figure14.23 Atypicalminifractest 436
Figure14.24 Asampleplotofpressurevssquarerootoftime 438
Figure14.25 Asampleplotofpressurevstimeonlog-logscale 439
Figure14.26 AsampleplotofpressurevsG-functiontime 440
Figure14.27 Atypicalboratecrosslinkedgelsample 445
Figure14.28 Apparentviscosityvstimeatdifferentshearratesforatypicalboratecrosslinkedgel 448
Figure14.29 Visualchartforevaluatingtheroundnessandsphericityofparticlegrains 450
Figure14.30 Effectofeffectiveclosurestressonproppantpackconductivityforvarioustypesof 451
proppants
Figure14.31 Photoof20/40-meshproppantsamples 452
Figure14.32 Schematicofequipmentlayoutforatypicalfracturingtreatment 453
Figure14.33 Photoofatypicalhigh-pressurepump 454
Figure14.34 Photoofatypicalblender 455
Figure14.35 Photoofatypicalmanifoldtrailer 456
Figure14.36 Photoofatypicaldatavan 457
Figure14.37 Proppantsilos 457
Figure14.38 Photooffracturingequipmentlayoutatwellsite 458
Figure14.39 Upcloseviewoffracturingequipmentlayoutatwellsite 458
Figure14.40 Relationshipbetweenfractureconductivityandequivalentskinfactor 461
Figure14.41 Anillustrationoftheproppedandunproppedfractures 465
Figure14.42 Anillustrationofstresscalibration 467
Figure14.43 Anillustrationoffracturegrowthinwidthandlengthandproppantplacement 469
xxiv List of Figures
Figure14.44 Iterationproceduretodeterminethepumpingtime 472
Figure14.45 Calculatedslurryconcentration 474
Figure14.46 Anillustrationoftreatmentcost,posttreatmentproductionandNPVvstreatmentsize 479
Figure14.47 Typicalcomponentsofafrac-packcompletion 481
Figure14.48 Atypicalfracplug 484
Figure14.49 Illustrationofmultistagecompletionusingtheplugandperfmethod 485
Figure14.50 Atypicalfracsleevesystem 486
Figure14.51 Typicalnetpressurematchingwithapseudo-3Dfracturemodel 491
Figure14.52 Fourflowregimesthatcanoccurinhydraulicallyfracturedreservoirs 492
Figure14.53 Earthdeformationcreatedfromahydraulicfracture 493
Figure14.54 Illustrationofmicroseismsinducedduringhydraulicfracturing 494
Figure14.55 Effectsofhorizontalwellspacingandorientationonreservoirdrainage 494
Figure15.1 Nomenclatureofatubingstringinahorizontalwell 506
Figure15.2 CalculatedtensionprofilesintheworkoverstringforExampleProblem15.1 508
Figure16.1 Adiagrammaticdrawingofasuckerrodpumpingsystem 516
Figure16.2 Sketchofthreetypesofpumpingunits:(A)conventionalunit;(B)LufkinMarkIIUnit; 517
(C)air-balancedunit
Figure16.3 Thepumpingcycle:(A)plungermovingdown,nearthebottomofthestroke; 518
(B)plungermovingup,nearthebottomofthestroke;(C)plungermovingup,
nearthetopofthestroke;(D)plungermovingdown,nearthetopof
thestroke
Figure16.4 Twotypesofplungerpumps.(A)Tubingpumpand(B)Rodpump 519
Figure16.5 Polishedrodmotionfor(A)conventionalpumpingunitand(B)air-balancedunit 519
Figure16.6 DefinitionsofconventionalpumpingunitAPIgeometrydimensions 522
Figure16.7 Approximatemotionofconnectionpointbetweenpitmanarmandwalkingbeam 523
Figure16.8 Suckerrodpumpingunitselectionchart 538
Figure16.9 Asketchofpumpdynagraph 542
Figure16.10 Pumpdynagraphcards:(A)idealcard;(B)gascompressionondown-stroke; 543
(C)gasexpansiononupstroke;(D)fluidpound;(E)vibrationduetofluidpound;
(F)gaslock
Figure16.11 Surfacedynamometercard:(A)idealcard(stretchandcontraction);(B)idealcard 545
(acceleration);(C)threetypicalcards
Figure16.12 Strain-gage–typedynamometerchart 546
Figure16.13 Surfacetodownholecardsderivedfromsurfacedynamometercard 546
Figure17.1 Configurationofatypicalgasliftwell 550
Figure17.2 Asimplifiedflowdiagramofaclosedrotarygasliftsystemforsingleintermittentwell 551
Figure17.3 Asketchofcontinuousgaslift 553
Figure17.4 Pressurerelationshipinacontinuousgaslift 553
Figure17.5 SystemanalysisplotgivenbyGasLiftPotential.xlsfortheunlimitedgasinjectioncase 556
Figure17.6 SystemanalysisplotgivenbyGasLiftPotential.xlsforthelimitedgasinjectioncase 557
Figure17.7 Wellunloadingsequence.(A)initialcondition,(B)gasentersthefirstvalve, 575
(C)gasentersthesecondvalve,(D)gasentersthelastvalve,and(E)unloaded
condition
Figure17.8 Flowcharacteristicsoforifice-typevalves 576