Table Of ContentPeterson’s
AP Chemistry
Peterson’s
AP Chemistry
Brett Barker
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ISBN: 0-7689-1828-6
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 07 06 05
First Edition
Contents v
CONTENTS
Introduction: Getting Started ..............................................................................................................1
Preparing for the AP Chemistry Exam..........................................................................................1
What the Exam Covers..................................................................................................................2
Getting to Know the Format of the Exam......................................................................................5
How the AP Chemistry Exam Is Scored........................................................................................6
Making a Study Plan......................................................................................................................8
10 Strategies for Acing the Exam................................................................................................10
Part I Diagnosing Your Strengths and Weaknesses
Diagnostic Test.....................................................................................................................................13
Part II AP Chemistry Strategies
Chapter 1: The AP Test Structure.....................................................................................................29
Review of the AP Question Types...............................................................................................29
The AP Chemistry Answer Sheets...............................................................................................30
Some Test-Wise Strategies for AP Success.................................................................................30
Multiple Choice ...........................................................................................................................38
The Free-Response Questions......................................................................................................40
Overview of the Free-Response Problems...................................................................................41
The Essays ...................................................................................................................................45
Summary......................................................................................................................................47
Part III AP Chemistry Review
Chapter 2: Problem Solving and Measurement...............................................................................51
Defining Accuracy and Precision................................................................................................51
Using Significant Figures ............................................................................................................52
Reviewing Scientific Notation.....................................................................................................54
Using Dimensional Analysis to Organize Your Work ................................................................54
Laboratory Component................................................................................................................56
Summary......................................................................................................................................59
Chapter 3: Atomic Structure..............................................................................................................61
The Historical Development of Modern Atomic Theory ............................................................61
Modern Atomic Theory...............................................................................................................63
The Periodic Table of Elements...................................................................................................66
The Quantum Model of the Atom................................................................................................71
Quantum Numbers.......................................................................................................................75
Electron Configurations...............................................................................................................79
Periodic Trends............................................................................................................................84
Summary......................................................................................................................................91
Review Questions and Answers...................................................................................................92
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vi Contents
Chapter 4: Nuclear Chemistry...........................................................................................................97
The Discovery of Radioactivity...................................................................................................97
Rutherford Discovers Different Types of Radiation....................................................................97
Different Types of Radioactive Emissions..................................................................................98
Radioactive Decay.....................................................................................................................100
Half-Life ....................................................................................................................................102
Nuclear Reactions......................................................................................................................108
Summary....................................................................................................................................111
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................112
Chapter 5: Chemical Bonding..........................................................................................................119
Lewis Symbols...........................................................................................................................119
Octet Rule..................................................................................................................................120
Ionic Bonds................................................................................................................................121
Covalent Bonds..........................................................................................................................124
Using Lewis Structures to Determine Molecular Bonding........................................................125
Resonance Structures.................................................................................................................128
Intermolecular Forces................................................................................................................129
Summary....................................................................................................................................132
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................133
Chapter 6: Molecular Geometry......................................................................................................137
VSEPR Theory ..........................................................................................................................137
Molecular Geometry..................................................................................................................140
Dipole Moments ........................................................................................................................144
Valence Bond Theory................................................................................................................147
Sigma and Pi Bonds...................................................................................................................150
Molecular Orbital Theory..........................................................................................................151
Summary....................................................................................................................................155
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................156
Chapter 7: States of Matter—Gases................................................................................................161
Units of Measure........................................................................................................................161
The Gas Laws ............................................................................................................................162
The Ideal Gas Law.....................................................................................................................166
Gas Density................................................................................................................................167
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures..............................................................................................168
Kinetic-Molecular Theory .........................................................................................................171
Graham’s Law of Effusion.........................................................................................................173
Deviations from the Ideal Gas Laws..........................................................................................175
Summary....................................................................................................................................179
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................180
Chapter 8: States of Matter—Liquids and Solids..........................................................................187
General Characteristics of Gases, Liquids, and Solids..............................................................187
Energy and Phase Changes........................................................................................................188
Heating Curves ..........................................................................................................................189
Vapor Pressure...........................................................................................................................192
Phase Diagrams..........................................................................................................................196
The Solid State...........................................................................................................................198
Summary....................................................................................................................................201
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................202
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Contents vii
Chapter 9: Solutions..........................................................................................................................207
Measuring Concentration...........................................................................................................207
Solvation....................................................................................................................................210
Colligative Properties ................................................................................................................213
Summary....................................................................................................................................222
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................223
Chapter 10: Reaction Types.............................................................................................................231
Nomenclature.............................................................................................................................231
Molecular Compounds...............................................................................................................238
Chemical Equations...................................................................................................................240
Major Reaction Types................................................................................................................246
Ionic Equations..........................................................................................................................251
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions.................................................................................................254
Summary of the Five Main Reaction Types..............................................................................262
Summary....................................................................................................................................268
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................269
Chapter 11: Stoichiometry................................................................................................................273
The Mole....................................................................................................................................273
Determining Chemical Formulas...............................................................................................277
Calculations in Chemical Reactions..........................................................................................281
Limiting Reactants.....................................................................................................................285
Summary....................................................................................................................................287
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................288
Chaper 12: Equilibrium....................................................................................................................297
The Equilibrium Constant..........................................................................................................297
The Equilibrium Constant, K ....................................................................................................298
c
The Equilibrium Constant, K ....................................................................................................299
p
The Relationship between K and K .........................................................................................300
c p
The Reaction Quotient...............................................................................................................302
Solving Problems When Not All Equilibrium Concentrations Are Known..............................303
Le Châtelier’s Principle.............................................................................................................307
Summary....................................................................................................................................310
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................311
Chapter 13: Acids and Bases............................................................................................................319
Definitions of Acids and Bases..................................................................................................319
The pH Concept.........................................................................................................................324
Weak Acids and Bases...............................................................................................................327
Salt Solutions.............................................................................................................................330
The Relationship between K and K .........................................................................................332
a b
The Common-Ion Effect............................................................................................................333
Buffers .......................................................................................................................................335
Acid-Base Titrations..................................................................................................................340
Summary....................................................................................................................................344
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................346
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viii Contents
Chapter 14: Additional Equilibrium Concepts ..............................................................................359
The Solubility-Product Constant, K .........................................................................................359
sp
Solubility....................................................................................................................................360
The Ion Product .........................................................................................................................361
Factors That Affect Solubility ...................................................................................................363
The Common-Ion Effect............................................................................................................363
The Effect of pH on Solubility...................................................................................................365
Complex Ions.............................................................................................................................366
Coordination Complexes ...........................................................................................................368
Nomenclature of Coordination Complexes ...............................................................................369
Summary....................................................................................................................................372
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................373
Chapter 15: Kinetics..........................................................................................................................385
Reaction Rate.............................................................................................................................385
Using Concentration to Describe Rate.......................................................................................386
Units and Rate Constants...........................................................................................................392
Determining Rate Laws.............................................................................................................393
Reaction Types ..........................................................................................................................394
Half-Life ....................................................................................................................................396
The Relationship Between Temperature and Rate.....................................................................398
Reaction Mechanisms................................................................................................................400
Rate-Determining Steps and Rate Laws....................................................................................402
The Effect of Catalysts on Reaction Rate..................................................................................405
Summary....................................................................................................................................407
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................408
Chapter 16: Thermodynamics..........................................................................................................417
Introduction................................................................................................................................417
The First Law of Thermodynamics............................................................................................418
Enthalpy.....................................................................................................................................418
Thermochemical Equations .......................................................................................................419
Hess’s Law.................................................................................................................................423
Spontaneity ................................................................................................................................424
Entropy.......................................................................................................................................425
The Second Law of Thermodynamics.......................................................................................425
Gibbs Free Energy.....................................................................................................................427
Summary....................................................................................................................................430
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................432
Chapter 17: Electrochemistry..........................................................................................................441
Review of Oxidation and Reduction..........................................................................................441
Voltaic Cells ..............................................................................................................................441
The Relationship between emf and Free Energy.......................................................................447
The Nernst Equation..................................................................................................................448
Electrolysis.................................................................................................................................449
Faraday’s Laws..........................................................................................................................452
Summary....................................................................................................................................456
Review Questions and Answers.................................................................................................457
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Contents ix
Chapter 18: Organic Chemistry.......................................................................................................465
Alkanes ......................................................................................................................................465
Isomers.......................................................................................................................................469
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons.........................................................................................................471
Functional Groups......................................................................................................................474
Summary....................................................................................................................................477
Part IV Practice Tests
Practice Test 1....................................................................................................................................481
Section I.....................................................................................................................................483
Section II....................................................................................................................................501
Answers and Explanations.........................................................................................................507
Practice Test 2....................................................................................................................................521
Section I.....................................................................................................................................523
Section II....................................................................................................................................540
Answers and Explanations.........................................................................................................545
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