Pesticides in Agriculture and the Environment (Books in Soils, Plants, and the Environment)

337 Pages·2002·6.12 MB·English

by  Willis B. Wheeler

P E S T I C I D E S I N A G R I C U LT U R E
A N D T H E E N V I R O N M E N T
E D I T E D B Y
WILLIS B. WHEELER
University of Florida
Gainesville,Florida,U.S.A.
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BOOKSINSOILS,PLANTS,ANDTHEENVIRONMENT
EditorialBoard
AgriculturalEngineering RobertM.Peart,UniversityofFlorida,Gainesville
AnimalScience HaroldHafs,RutgersUniversity,NewBrunswick,
NewJersey
Crops MohammadPessarakli,UniversityofArizona,
Tucson
IrrigationandHydrology DonaldR.Nielsen,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis
Microbiology JanDirkvanElsas,ResearchInstituteforPlant
Protection,Wageningen,TheNetherlands
Plants L.DavidKuykendall,U.S.Departmentof
Agriculture,Beltsville,Maryland
KennethB.Marcum,TexasA&MUniversity, El
Paso,Texas
Soils Jean-MarcBollag,PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,
UniversityPark,Pennsylvania
TsuyoshiMiyazaki,UniversityofTokyo
SoilBiochemistry,Volume1,editedbyA.D.McLarenandG.H.Peterson
SoilBiochemistry,Volume2,editedbyA.D.McLarenandJ.Skujiòð
SoilBiochemistry,Volume3,editedbyE.A.PaulandA.D.McLaren
SoilBiochemistry,Volume4,editedbyE.A.PaulandA.D.McLaren
SoilBiochemistry,Volume5,editedbyE.A.PaulandJ.N.Ladd
SoilBiochemistry,Volume6,editedbyJean-MarcBollagandG.Stotzky
SoilBiochemistry,Volume7,editedbyG.StotzkyandJean-MarcBollag
SoilBiochemistry,Volume8,editedbyJean-MarcBollagandG.Stotzky
SoilBiochemistry,Volume9,editedbyG.StotzkyandJean-MarcBollag
SoilBiochemistry,Volume10,editedbyJean-MarcBollagandG.Stotzky
Organic Chemicals in the Soil Environment, Volumes 1 and 2, edited by C.
A.I.GoringandJ.W.Hamaker
HumicSubstancesintheEnvironment,M.SchnitzerandS.U.Khan
MicrobialLifeintheSoil:AnIntroduction,T.Hattori
PrinciplesofSoilChemistry,KimH.Tan
Soil Analysis: Instrumental Techniques and Related Procedures, edited by
KeithA.Smith
Soil Reclamation Processes: Microbiological Analyses and Applications,
editedbyRobertL.TateIIIandDonaldA.Klein
SymbioticNitrogenFixationTechnology,editedbyGeraldH.Elkan
Soil–Water Interactions: Mechanisms and Applications, Shingo Iwata and
ToshioTabuchiwithBennoP.Warkentin
Soil Analysis: Modern Instrumental Techniques, Second Edition, edited by
KeithA.Smith
Soil Analysis: Physical Methods, edited by Keith A. Smith and Chris E.
Mullins
GrowthandMineralNutritionofFieldCrops,N.K.Fageria,V.C.Baligar,and
CharlesAllanJones
Semiarid Lands and Deserts: Soil Resource and Reclamation, edited by J.
Skujiòð
PlantRoots:TheHiddenHalf,editedbyYoavWaisel,AmramEshel,andUzi
Kafkafi
PlantBiochemicalRegulators,editedbyHaroldW.Gausman
MaximizingCropYields,N.K.Fageria
TransgenicPlants:FundamentalsandApplications,editedbyAndrewHiatt
Soil Microbial Ecology: Applications in Agricultural and Environmental
Management,editedbyF.BlaineMetting,Jr.
PrinciplesofSoilChemistry:SecondEdition,KimH.Tan
WaterFlowinSoils,editedbyTsuyoshiMiyazaki
HandbookofPlantandCropStress,editedbyMohammadPessarakli
GeneticImprovementofFieldCrops,editedbyGustavoA.Slafer
AgriculturalFieldExperiments:DesignandAnalysis,RogerG.Petersen
EnvironmentalSoilScience,KimH.Tan
Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Improved Productivity: Modern Ap-
proaches,editedbyAmarjitS.Basra
Selenium in the Environment, edited by W. T. Frankenberger, Jr., and Sally
Benson
Plant–EnvironmentInteractions,editedbyRobertE.Wilkinson
HandbookofPlantandCropPhysiology,editedbyMohammadPessarakli
HandbookofPhytoalexinMetabolismandAction,editedbyM.DanielandR.
P.Purkayastha
Soil–Water Interactions: Mechanisms and Applications, Second Edition, Re-
vised and Expanded, Shingo Iwata, Toshio Tabuchi, and Benno P.
Warkentin
Stored-Grain Ecosystems, edited by Digvir S. Jayas, Noel D. G. White, and
WilliamE.Muir
AgrochemicalsfromNaturalProducts,editedbyC.R.A.Godfrey
SeedDevelopmentandGermination,editedbyJaimeKigelandGadGalili
NitrogenFertilizationintheEnvironment,editedbyPeterEdwardBacon
Phytohormones in Soils: Microbial Production and Function, William T.
Frankenberger,Jr.,andMuhammadArshad
HandbookofWeedManagementSystems,editedbyAlbertE.Smith
SoilSampling,Preparation,andAnalysis,KimH.Tan
SoilErosion,Conservation,andRehabilitation,editedbyMenachemAgassi
Plant Roots: The Hidden Half, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
editedbyYoavWaisel,AmramEshel,andUziKafkafi
Photoassimilate Distribution in Plants and Crops: Source–Sink Relation-
ships,editedbyEliZamskiandArthurA.Schaffer
Mass Spectrometry of Soils, edited by Thomas W. Boutton and Shinichi
Yamasaki
HandbookofPhotosynthesis,editedbyMohammadPessarakli
Chemical and Isotopic Groundwater Hydrology: The Applied Approach,
SecondEdition,RevisedandExpanded,EmanuelMazor
Fauna in Soil Ecosystems: Recycling Processes, Nutrient Fluxes, and Agri-
culturalProduction,editedbyGeroBenckiser
Soil and Plant Analysis in Sustainable Agriculture and Environment, edited
byTeresaHoodandJ.BentonJones,Jr.
Seeds Handbook: Biology, Production, Processing, and Storage, B. B.
Desai,P.M.Kotecha,andD.K.Salunkhe
ModernSoilMicrobiology,editedbyJ.D.vanElsas,J.T.Trevors,andE.M.
H.Wellington
Growth and Mineral Nutrition of Field Crops: Second Edition, N. K. Fageria,
V.C.Baligar,andCharlesAllanJones
Fungal Pathogenesis in Plants and Crops: Molecular Biology and Host
DefenseMechanisms,P.Vidhyasekaran
PlantPathogenDetectionandDiseaseDiagnosis,P.Narayanasamy
Agricultural Systems Modeling and Simulation, edited by Robert M. Peart
andR.BruceCurry
AgriculturalBiotechnology,editedbyArieAltman
Plant–Microbe Interactions and Biological Control, edited by Greg J. Boland
andL.DavidKuykendall
Handbook of Soil Conditioners: Substances That Enhance the Physical
PropertiesofSoil,editedbyArthurWallaceandRichardE.Terry
Environmental Chemistry of Selenium, edited by William T. Frankenberger,
Jr.,andRichardA.Engberg
Principles of Soil Chemistry: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, Kim H.
Tan
SulfurintheEnvironment,editedbyDouglasG.Maynard
Soil–Machine Interactions: A Finite Element Perspective, edited by Jie Shen
andRadheyLalKushwaha
Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food Safety, edited by Kaushal K. Sinha and
DeepakBhatnagar
PlantAminoAcids:BiochemistryandBiotechnology,editedbyBijayK.Singh
Handbook of Functional Plant Ecology, edited by Francisco I. Pugnaire and
FernandoValladares
Handbook of Plant and Crop Stress: Second Edition, Revised and Ex-
panded,editedbyMohammadPessarakli
Plant Responses to Environmental Stresses: From Phytohormones to Ge-
nomeReorganization,editedbyH.R.Lerner
HandbookofPestManagement,editedbyJohnR.Ruberson
EnvironmentalSoilScience:SecondEdition,RevisedandExpanded,KimH.
Tan
MicrobialEndophytes,editedbyCharlesW.BaconandJamesF.White,Jr.
Plant–Environment Interactions: Second Edition, edited by Robert E. Wil-
kinson
MicrobialPestControl,SushilK.Khetan
Soil and Environmental Analysis: Physical Methods, Second Edition, Re-
visedandExpanded,editedbyKeithA.SmithandChrisE.Mullins
The Rhizosphere: Biochemistry and Organic Substances at the Soil–Plant
Interface,RobertoPinton,ZenoVaranini,andPaoloNannipieri
Woody Plants and Woody Plant Management: Ecology, Safety, and Envi-
ronmentalImpact,RodneyW.Bovey
MetalsintheEnvironment:AnalysisbyBiodiversity,M.N.V.Prasad
Plant Pathogen Detection and Disease Diagnosis: Second Edition, Revised
andExpanded,P.Narayanasamy
Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology: Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded,editedbyMohammadPessarakli
EnvironmentalChemistryofArsenic,editedbyWilliamT.Frankenberger,Jr.
Enzymes in the Environment: Activity, Ecology, and Applications, edited by
RichardG.BurnsandRichardP.Dick
Plant Roots: The Hidden Half, Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited
byYoavWaisel,AmramEshel,andUziKafkafi
Handbook of Plant Growth: pH as the Master Variable, edited by Zdenko
Rengel
BiologicalControlofCropDiseases,editedbySamuelS.Gnanamanickam
PesticidesinAgricultureandtheEnvironment,editedbyWillisB.Wheeler
Mathematical Models of Crop Growth and Yield, Allen R. Overman and
RichardV.ScholtzIII
Plant Biotechnology and Transgenic Plants, edited by Kirsi-Marja Oksman-
CaldenteyandWolfgangH.Barz
HandbookofPostharvestTechnology:Cereals,Fruits,Vegetables,Tea,and
Spices, edited by Amalendu Chakraverty, Arun S. Mujumdar, G. S.
VijayaRaghavan,andHosahalliS.Ramaswamy
HandbookofSoilAcidity,editedbyZdenkoRengel
AdditionalVolumesinPreparation
Humic Matter: Issues and Controversies in Soil and Environmental Science,
KimH.Tan
MolecularHostResistancetoPests,S.SadasivamandB.Thayumanavan
Preface
Thisvolumeisdesignedtofillthenicheestablishedintheearly1970sbyPesti-
cidesintheEnvironment,editedbyRobertWhite-Stephens,atthetimeamember
oftheRutgersUniversityfaculty.Thethree-volumeworkrepresentedastate-of-
the-artdescriptionofthefieldofpesticidesinadifferenttimeanddifferentplace.
The arena of pest management has changed dramatically in the past 30-
plusyears.PesticidesinAgricultureandtheEnvironmentisdesignedtosumma-
rize thestateofthevariousaspectsof pestmanagement,some ofwhichdid not
exist a generation ago and all of which have changed dramatically. It does not
focus on the chemistry of the various pest management tactics as did White-
Stephens’s book. The present volume describes the current status of pesticide
issues and those related to the broader topic of pest management. It discusses
integrated pest management (IPM) and how it came to be, the current state of
riskassessment,biologicalcontroltechniques,theeconomicsofpestmanagement
andpestmanagementlegislation,andthecurrentstateofanalyticalmethodsused
byinternationalregulatorsandoffersastate-of-the-artdescriptionofthescience
of environmental fate. It also presents specific issues for pest management on
“minor crops,” the current approach and issues related to chemical application
technology,theimportantissuesofresistanceofpeststopesticidesandmanage-
mentofthatresistance,and,finally,alooktothefutureforbothpestmanagement
chemistry and the state of the pest management industry. The authors of these
chapters represent the best expertise in the field.
The enactment of the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) of 1996 has
hadamajorimpactoncontemporarypestmanagementregulation.Itsfar-reaching
consequencesarediscussedinessentiallyeverychapter.Owingtoitsimportance,
I summarize a number of its provisions in the following paragraphs.
TheFQPAof1996amendedtheFederalInsecticide,Fungicide,andRoden-
ticide Act (FIFRA) and the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA).
TheseamendmentsfundamentallychangedthewaytheU.S.EnvironmentalPro-
tection Agency (USEPA) regulates pesticides. The requirements include a new
safety standard—reasonable certainty of no harm—that must be applied to all
pesticidesusedonfoods.TheFQPA was designed toresolvetheDelaney Para-
dox, protect children from pesticides, and address endocrine disruption. To ac-
complish these goals, the law provides that:
• The USEPA is to reregister pesticides every 15 years using the best
available data.
• There is a specific definition of minor (use) crops: The definition in-
cludes crops grown on fewer than 300,000 acres or a minor use may
be defined on an economic basis if the pesticide use on a crop is very
limited.Itmayalsobedefinedasminorifthepesticideuseistheonly
alternative, orifitissaferthanother alternatives,orifitisneededfor
IPM and resistance management. The FQPA also provided incentives
todevelopandmaintainminoruses,andtoimplementafasterapproval
of reduced-risk pesticides and those used on minor crops.
• The zero-tolerance standard for certain pesticides in processed foods
beeliminated(theoldDelaneyClause)andthatweestablishnewstan-
dards for setting tolerances in both fresh and processed foods.
• Tolerances(maximumresiduevalue)mustbesafe,i.e.,“providearea-
sonable certainty that no harm will result from aggregate exposure.”
Alltolerancesmustbereviewedby2006,andthemosttoxicmaterials
must be reviewed first.
• Risksfrompesticidesmustbebasedonexposurestoallchemicalsthat
have a common mode of toxicity. In the past, exposure was based on
pesticidesinfoodonly.Nowallexposuresmustbeconsidered:dietary,
water, and household.
• Safetyfactorsformerlyincludedintra-andinterspeciesvariation(rang-
ing from100-to1000-fold);nowsafetyfactorsmustalsoincludefac-
tors for infants and children. Thus additional safety factors can give a
1000–10,000-foldsafetyfactor.Toimplementevaluationofthesafety
factorforinfantsandchildren,theUSEPAhaslookedatthefoodsthat
makeuplargepercentagesofthedietsofinfantsandchildren,including
apples, peaches, soybeans, pears, and carrots.
• Endocrinedisruptorsarecompoundsthatmimicorblocktheeffectsof
hormones, such as estrogen, or act on the endocrine system and may
causedevelopmentalorreproductiveproblems.Thesemustbe consid-
ered when registering a pesticide.
Pesticides in Agriculture and the Environment discusses issues that are
essential components of the contemporary pest management arena. The chapter
topics include:
Chapter 1: A description of the major policy considerations that have
shaped federal IPM programs over the past three decades.
Chapter 2: A description of the approaches to nonchemical pest manage-
ment;discussionsofdefinitionsofbiologicalcontrol,benefitsandlimita-
tions, and its ecological basis.
Chapter 3: An in-depth discussion of major pesticide use trends in the
UnitedStates;theeffectsofsuchfactorsaspesticideproductivity,farm
programs,andpesticideregulationsonuse;andchanginglawandpolicy.
Chapter4:Anintroductiontopesticidesafetyandtheframeworkofhealth
riskassessment,specificallypesticideriskassessmentandecologicalrisk
assessment.
Chapter5:Adescriptionoftheprocessesoftransportandfateofpesticides
in the environment. It examines dissipation, leaching, and degradation
and models for predicting these processes.
Chapter 6: A discussion of the analytical process as it is practiced in the
regulatoryarena,includingapproachestomonitoringthefoodsupplyin
many countries around the world.
Chapter7:Theissuesofpestmanagementrelatedspecificallytolow-acre-
age,high-valuecrops.Thereareeconomicandotherissuesforpesticide
manufacturers and producers of minor crops.
Chapter 8: A discussion of the importance of pesticide resistance for pest
managementinagricultureandhumanhealthprotectionanddescription
of a publicly available resistance database.
Chapter 9: A review of efforts to increase pesticide applicator safety and
to improve the efficacy and effectiveness of the application techniques.
Chapter10:Ananalysisofthecurrentstateofthecropprotectionindustry
andaprojectionofthefuture.Thediscussionincludescompanymergers
and acquisitions, generic pesticide producers, seed companies, new
chemistries of pesticides, plant biotechnology, and major trends in the
industry.
It is my hope that readers will find this book an informative reference on
pest management in the modern world.
Willis B. Wheeler