Perspectives on Anarchist Theory

14 Pages·2013·7.78 MB·English

The Institute for
Anarchist Studies Chaia Heller is one of the most Ecology, Desire analogous to but directly ho
exciting feminist and Utopian mologous to the dialectic be
intellectuals currently writing and tween need and desire.
Fall 1999
in English. In her first major
Vol. 3 No. 2 work, Ecology of Everyday I think that desire is need be
Revolution:
Life: Rethinking the Desire for coming increasingly free. It is
Nature, Chaia Heller extends the subject becoming increas
a feminist critique of roman An Interview ingly free from the realm of
tic love to an exploration of necessity, as necessity becomes
alienated perceptions of na increasingly subjective. For ex
with
ture. Heller challenges us to ample, the need for food be
rethink the epistemological comes the conscious, subjective
basis of our desire for a better Chaia Heller desire for a kind of food. This
world with one of the most is a dialectic that marks both
challenging and considered by Rebecca DeWitt history and natural history. And
examinations of the dialectic so I think that there is a very
of desire and need since Murray Bookchin's 1967 compelling relationship between the dialectic of
essay of the same name. Heller brings the subject freedom and necessity and desire and need, which
into the forefront of considerations for social inspired Bookchin to write a very important essay
change, rescuing it from the esoteric background in the 60's called "Desire and Need."
of social theory.
Any movement toward freedom will have to figure
I spoke with Chaia about her book, her work, and out a way to talk about desire and not just need. I
her experience as a radical theorist in August 1999. see this as part of evolutionary and revolutionary
thinking. I think there was this potential as we
~ Rebecca DeWitt moved from the Old Left to the New Left but that
the advance will only become fulfilled when we can
truly understand this historical dialectic between
freedom and necessity. It is not sufficient to only
have peoples' physical material needs met, and it is
certainly not acceptable for that to happen within
Y f hat was it like to write this book, struggle centralized authoritarian state structures. We must
with these complicated social and political issues, not only figure out how to meet peoples' material
and try to propose solutions within the current po needs but also figure out a way to qualitatively trans
litical climate? form the way we meet those needs that will be in
creasingly subjective and conscious and free. The
Writing is the way I deal with the fact that I live in way to do that is to create a political structure that
a counter-revolutionary time. It has been an im encourages the greatest degree of social complex
portant way for me to do that and helps me keep ity, participation, and that structure would be direct
engaged, inspired and focused on revolutionary democracy.
ideas and work. I've always been in love with ideas,
and thinking about Utopian or revolutionary ideas
gives me a sense of hopefulness and possibilities J[ ou state that "focusing solely on need and sur
because you can often think beyond what you can vival naturalizes conditions of ecological scarcity
do in a particular historical moment. So, I get a lot and destruction... When we lose sight of the quali
of satisfaction and joy out of thinking beyond "what tative dimensions of life, we lose the ability to con
is given" to "what ought to be." trast the world that is to the world that ought to
be." Implicit in this statement is the idea that we
can change our society and therefore have no rea
J[ ou articulate a revolutionary project in which son to settle for the unjust society we currently have.
need (the realm of necessity) must become desire, Many political trends have turned away from the
where need is transcended by focusing on our col Utopian approach. Why is it important to maintain
lective desire for a better way of life. You state a Utopian ideal?
that this desire can and must become politicized.
How does desire become politicized? This goes back to how do you cope with life in a
counter-revolutionary time. Utopia can imply some
I think that it entails a dialectic. The dialectic of sort of evolutionary vision and progress, and im
natural evolution is this movement towards ever plies not just change but some qualitative progres
greater levels of consciousness, freedom, subjec sion; a shift from "what is" to "what ought to be."
tivity. And, I think that this dialectic is not just continued on page 6
In This Issue:
PERSPECTIVES Grant Awards and Updates page 3
ON ANARCHIST What's Happening page 4
IAS Development page 10
THEORY
IAS Update
Fall 1999, Vol. 3, No, 2
Newsletter of thei&titute
In these politically uncertain times we need to con an anarchist analysis. (Read more about our June
for Anarchist Studies
tinue to gather strength by exploring new ideas and 1999 grant awards on page 3). Also, we were
the potential for change. At the IAS we have been excited to receive a finished copy of Mark Bonhert
Editorial Committee:
doing just that and there are quite a few things to and Richard Curtis' project, Passionate and Dan
Rebecca DeWitt, Chuck Morse,
Eva Garcia report. gerous: Conversations with Midwestern Anti-
Authoritarians and Anarchists. (See page 3 to
I want to first mention a very important organiza read more about the project and find out how to
Grammatical .Partisans:
tional change. This June the IAS board voted to obtain a copy.)
Hamish Alcorn, Andrew Bellware,
make me the General Director of IAS. I am very
Paul Glavin, Qayyum Johnson
excited to take on this role and I am inspired by the We are also in the middle of our 1999 fundraising
challenges this position presents and the contribu campaign, whose success will allow us to con
Subscription Rates
tions I can make to the growth of the IAS. Chuck tinue awarding grants, publishing Perspectives,
(Two issues per year)
Morse (the founder of the IAS) has held this posi and add $10,000 to the IAS endowment We will
IAS Donors - Free
tion since the organization's inception more than be able to add $10,000 to the endowment thanks
Individuals - $5
three years ago. It was agreed that this administra to a combination of two sources: last November
Institutions • - ' ' *- $10
Bulk Subs (25 Copies) - $25 tive change would help bring new perspectives to 1998, a generous IAS supporter pledged to do
bear on the direction of the IAS and also help Chuck nate $8000 to our endowment upon the success
devote more time to fundraising and other IAS ac of the our 1999 fundraising campaign and we
tivities. Chuck will, of course, continue as a mem will add $2000 to that amount, bringing the total
Institute/or Anarchist Studies)
ber of the IAS administrative staff, co-editor of the to $10,000 (see page 11 for more details). We
newsletter, and a member of the board. have set big goals for ourselves this year but we
tives do notnecessarily represenithe views anticipate success with the generous help of long
We have also been working to develop the prin time supporters, new friends and those who have
of the IAS as a whole. The material in this
ciples and structure of the IAS. For the last six already donated.
newsletter is © the Institute for Anarchist
months three local board members met regularly
Studies.
to address IAS developmental issues. We have fo Perrenial Books has changed their name but not
*** > cused on reevaluating our grant priorities, board their commitment to the IAS and radical litera
-IAS Board of Directors: , development and finances in light of the current ture. Perennial has become Raven Used Books
Paula Emery, John Petrovato, weakness of radical theory and politics. We feel (located in Amherst, Massachusetts) and continue
Dan Chodorkoff, Cindy Milstein, the main purpose of the IAS is to cultivate and help to help the IAS by making forty-eight titles avail
Michelle Matisons, Maura Dillon, > re-build a radical movement and we are working able to IAS donors (please see the insert
, Paul Glavin, Chuck Morse to refine our principles and strategies accordingly. enclosed in this issue for a listing of the excep
In addition, the board passed a proposal to tional books they are offering).
Administrative Staff: strengthen the percentage of local board members
Chuck Morse, Eva Garcia based in New York City so that there will be more The IAS has been in existence for three and a
.Rebecca DeWitt of a support network and radical milieu around the half years, we have given away $17,000 to
IAS headquarters in. We have also set ourselves eightteen projects, we have published six issues
General Director: , >,^ the task of rewriting the brochure and translating of Perspectives (including this issue), and we are
Rebecca DeWitt it into several languages. Please see page 10 for a settling in our new home in NYC. What is espe
detailed report of our endeavors over the last six cially encouraging is that the IAS has taken root
' *** months. in the widespread anarchist and radical commu
, Institute for Anarchist Studies nity and is appreciated by activists and writers
P.O. Box 1664 The IAS continues to award grants to exciting both nationally and internationally. All of these
Peter Stuyvesant Station projects and see the results of previous grant awards. accomplishments and the growing support for the
NewYorkiNY 10009-USA. ^ It has always been our hope to support foreign lan IAS are inspiring us to continue and improve our
guage projects and we recently took a step in that work.
Phone:. [phone] direction. We are very excited to give out our first
E-mail: 1 [email protected] grant for a non-English language project to ~ Rebecca DeWitt
Web: : jhtto://homelnewyoiknet , Fernando Lopez for his Spanish-language study of
,i. .net'jas/Defeultihtm , the Federacidn Anarquista Comunista Argentina, September 1999
an Argentinean anarcho-communist organization.
The IAS isa nonprofit, tax-exempt We have also given a grant to C.W. Brown who
.organization. will address American right-wing activities through
Perspectives 2 Fall 1999
Grant The Institute nizations were shrinking at this time (after study the social and political theory of the
for Anarchist being the largest anarchist movement in Latin patriot right in the US as seen through the
Studies (IAS) America). He will then look at the decline of lenses of classical anarchist theory. It has two
Awards annujny
the FACA in the 1940's and 1950's and the objectives: first, to understand the patriot
awards $6000 relationship of its decline to the rise of the right discourse in the contemporary US in
in grants to writers whose work is important Peronist movement. Lopez will search for the the context of anarchist studies in fascism,
to the anarchist critique of domination, who deep reasons of the FACA's demise, arguing and second, to grasp the extent to which that
have a clear financial need, and whose piece that state repression cannot be counted as a patriot right discourse resonates with every
is likely to be widely distributed. The IAS primary cause. It will contain chapters such day American ideology and thus expresses
Board of Directors was pleased to award as "The Coup D'Etat of Uriburu and the Rise the clean outlines of the ideology of domina
grants to the following individuals in June of the FACA"; "The 1930's Strikes"; "The tion in the 'new world order'. The scheduled
1999: Civil War in Spain"; and "The Dictatorship completion date for this project is Fall 1999.
of 1943 and the Rise of the Peronism." The Brown lives in Greenfield, Massachusetts.
$2200 to Fernando Gustavo Lopez Trujillo work will be written in Spanish.
for this piece, The FACA and the Anarchist If you are interested in applying for a grant,
Movement in Argentina, 1930-1950. This The scheduled date for the completion of this please send a self-addressed, stamped enve
piece will be a historical study of the project is March 2000. Lopez lives in Buenos lope to the IAS at P.O. Box 1664, Peter
Federation Anarquista Comunista Argentina Aires, Argentina. Stuyvesant Station, New York, NY, 10009 -
(FACA). He will examine the growth of the USA. You may also download a grant appli
FACA from 1935 and into the 1940's, a de $800 to C.W. Brown for "Vanguards of the cation from the IAS's website at: http://
velopment that is exceptional given that the Crusaders: Freedom and Domination in home.newvorknet.net/ias/Default.htm. ~
Argentine anarchist movement and its orga Right-wing Discourse." This project will
Passionate Lucien van der Walt has completed more than ticular attention to the way they linked racial
Grant
and Danger 140 pages of his manuscript, Anarchism and themes to anti-government messages. He
ous: Conver Revolutionary Syndicalism in South Africa, hopes to complete his project by Fall 1999.
Updates sations with 1904-1921. He has written a detailed treat He was awarded $1000 in June 1998.
Midwestern ment of the impact of anarchism and revolu
Anti-Author tionary syndicalism on the early socialist Chris Day continues work on his book, An
itarians and Anarchists by Mark Bonhert and movement in South Africa up until 1920 and archism and the Zapatista Revolution. He has
Richard Curtis has been completed and pub all that remains to be examined are the events completed a draft of the first section, which
lished as an attractive, 70 page pamphlet. The leading to the founding of the Communist is a history of the EZLN from its founding in
pamphlet (formerly titled Post-Industrial Re Party of South Africa in mid-1921. His re 1983 to 1994. He has also written two ar
sources: Anarchist Reconstructive Efforts & search indicates that libertarian socialism was ticles that will provide the basis for an addi
Visions in the Upper Midwest) is comprised a powerful influence on the early left-wing tional two chapters. The first, which is sched
of interviews with anarchist activists from movement. Two articles drawn from his re uled for publication in Forward Motion, re
Detroit, Chicago, and other areas through search will appear this year. "'The Industrial capitulates the history of the EZLN prior to
out the Midwest It defies the Midwest's repu Union is the Embryo of the Socialist Com 1994 and continues with a narrative account
tation as a bastion of conservatism and of monwealth': The International Socialist of their development to the present An ed
fers a candid picture of the contemporary League and Revolutionary Syndicalism in ited version of the second article, "Dual Power
anarchist movement, its failings as well as South Africa, 1915-1920" will appear in in the Lacandon Jungle" is scheduled for pub
strengths. It is available from AK Press, Left Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa lication by the Fire By Night Organizing
Bank Books, or directly from the authors at and the Middle East and "Race, Class and Committee. This is a theoretical treatment
P.O. Box 63232, St. Louis, MO 63163. Revolutionary Syndicalism in South Africa: of the lessons of the Zapatistas's experience
Bonhert and Curtis were awarded $250 in The International Socialist League and the in dual power in the form of the autonomous
June 1997. Industrial Workers of Africa, 1915-1920" is municipalities established in December 1994.
forthcoming in Archivfur die Geschichte des He was awarded $2000 in January 1998.
Matt Hern and Stuart Chaulk's book, The Widerstandes und der Arbeit. He was
Myth of the Internet: Private Isolation and awarded $500 in June 1998. Sam Mbah is working on his book, The Mili
Local Community has been accepted for pub tary Dictatorship And The State In Africa.
lication by Broadview Press of Toronto, Joe Lowndes continues to work on his "An He completed the analysis and collation of
Canada. A first draft is being reviewed by archism and the Rise of Rightwing Anti-stat research materials this spring and has now
the publisher and Hern and Chaulk antici ism." He will soon begin archival research begun writing. He was awarded $2000 in
pate that the book will be available in the fall into the direct mail campaigns of the New January 1999.
or early winter. They were awarded $1200 in Right in the mid-1970's. He will examine
January 1998. how New Right elites appealed to a white, All but four of thirty chapters of Zoe Erwin
middle and working-class public, with par- continued on page 9
Perspectives 3 Fall 1999
What's Happening:
CONTACTS &
ADDRESSES
Noam Chomsky has exposed international poli are treated in Herbert Read Reassessed edited by
tics and exposed the hypocrisy of ruling elites for David Goodway (334 pages, Liverpool University
decades and fortunately his efforts show no signs Press, 1998). This anthology treats topics such as
AK Press of slowing. In his latest release, The New Military Read and World War I, Read's organic aesthetic,
P.O. Box 40682 Humanism: Lessons from Kosovo (Common Cour Read and design, and his use of Freud. An over
San Francisco, CA age Press, September 1999), Chomsky blasts view of Read's life is presented in the introduc
94140-USA NATO countries for responding to the Serbian tion and a bibliography of his work is also in
atrocities while ignoring ethnic cleansings in other cluded. German readers will want to pick up Pinsel
http://www.akpress.org/
countries and warns about a new und Dolch. Anarchistische Ideen
colonialism cloaked in moralistic in Kunst und Kunsttheorie 1840-
City Lights
261 Columbus Avenue righteousness. 1920 by Dieter Scholz (477 pages,
San Francisco, CA 94133 Reimer, 1999) (Trans: Paintbrush
Those looking for an introduction and Dagger: Anarchist Ideas in
http://www.citylights.com/
to Chomsky's views or simply an Art and Art Theory 1840-1920)
Common Courage Press anti-authoritarian analysis of con
P.O. Box 702 temporary political issues will want Primary documents from the radi
to read The Struggle for Democ cal feminist movement will be
Monroe, ME 04951
http:// racy: Political Writings of Noam easier to examine thanks to the
www.commoncouragepress.com/ Chomsky edited by Mark Pavlick publication oi Radical Feminism:
(400 pages, Common Courage An Historical Reader edited by
Ediciones Antorcha Press, January 1999). This book Barbara Crow (480 pages, NYU
Av. Cuauhtemoc 1177 contains many of Chomsky's clas Press, November 1999). This book
Col. Letran Valle sic yet hard to find essays as well as Luce Fabbri contains pivotal documents writ
some of his more recent writings ten by U.S. radical feminists in the
Delegation Benito Juarez
03650 - Mexico, D.F. (including his interviews with Michel Foucault 1960s and 1970s and combines both unpublished
E-mail: and William Buckley). With essays on human na and previously published manifestos, position pa
antorcha(a),df 1 .telmex.net.mx ture, human rights, Indochina, the responsibility pers, meeting minutes, and newsletters essential
of intellectuals, and other subjects, this anthology to the development of radical feminism during this
Fundacion "Anselmo Lorenzo" will provide an overview of Chomsky's political time. The collection is organized around the is
Paseo de Alberto Palacios, 2, ideas. For philosophical essays in the anarchist sues of sex and sexuality, race, children, lesbian
28021 Madrid, Spain tradition as well as biographical sketches, Span ism, separatism, and class. It includes original
ish readers will want to explore La Libertad entre work by groups such as The Furies, Redstockings,
http://www.ecn.Org/a.reus/
cntreus/fal/index.html la Historia y la Utopia: Tres Ensayos y Otros Cell 16, and the Women's Liberation Movement.
Textos del Sigh XX by Luce Fabbri (145 pages, For the direct testimony of earlier generation of
Kate Sharpley Library REA, December 1998, trans: Freedom in History radical women, Spanish readers will want to con
BM Hurricane and Utopia; Three Essays and Other Texts of the sult Mujeres Libres, Luchadoras Libertarias (191
London, WC1N 3XX 20th Century). Fabbri, a life-long anarchist, theo pages, Fundacion Anselmo Lorenzo, 1999). This
UK rist, and central figure of the Uruguayan anarchist book contains commentary from 13 members of
http://members.aol.com/ community, offers essays on fascism, international the Mujeres Libres, an anarcha-feminist organi
wellslake/Sharpley.htm politics, the idea of Utopia, as well as biographi zation active during the Spanish Civil War, on
cal pieces on her father Luigi Fabbri, Simon themes such as culture, work, and socialization.
See Sharp Press Radowitzky, and other important figures of twen
P.O. Box 1731 tieth century anarchism. Several new books offer important contributions
to the comprehensive history of anarchism. The
Tucson, AZ 85702
Phone: [phone] Several new works explore the aesthetic dimen Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy edited by
http://home.earthlink.net/ sion of radical politics. Revolutionary Romanti Kathlyn and Martin Gay (300 pages, ABC-Clio,
~seesharp/ cism: A Drunken Boat Anthology (260 pages, City August 1999) examines the ancient roots of the
Lights Books, July 1999), edited by Max movement, spotlights key individuals, and ex
Seven Stories Press Blechman, draws on two centuries of the inter plores important groups, organizations, events,
140 Watts Street twined traditions of cultural and political subver legal cases, and theories. It is the first English
New York, NY 10013 sion. The anthology attempts to recapture and language encyclopedia on anarchism. Facing the
[phone] transvalue the transgressions of the past for the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from
benefit of contemporary struggles. It contains es Proudhon to May 68 by Alexandre Skirda (299
[phone] (fax)
[email protected] says on William Blake, William Morris, Erich pages, AK Press, October 1999) traces the history
Muhsam, Walter Benjamin, Guy Debord, and oth of anarchism as a political movement and ideol
ers. The life and work of Herbert Read, a poet, ogy across the 19th and 20th centuries, offering
novelist, art critic, and 'philosophical anarchist' biting and incisive portraits of the major thinkers
Perspectives 4 Fall 1999
Books and Events
and organizers as well as their opposition. (French Kimeldorf's Syndicalism, Pure, and Simple:
readers may wish to pick up the reprint of Skirda's Wobblies, Craft Unionists, and the Battle for
Nestor Makhno, Le Cosaque Libertaire and la American Labor (University of California Press, The Centro de Documentation e
Guerre Civile en Ukraine, 1917-1921 (491 pages, 275 pages, December 1999). Kimeldorf looks at Investigacion de la Cultura de
Essais et Documents, 1999).) how organized labor in the United States has both Izquierdas en la Argenrtina
mounted some of the most aggressive challenges (CeDinCi) is a radical archive lo
A full treatment of anarchist history would be se to employing classes anywhere in the world yet cated in Buenos Aires containing
riously incomplete without an examination of the also warmly embraced the capitalist system of a broad selection of material from
struggles, successes, and failures of Spanish an which they are a part. Rejecting conventional un the Argentine Left. It was founded
archists from 1936 to 1939. Research on anar derstandings of American unionism, Kimeldorf in 1996 when an old militant died
chism during this period will be greatly enhanced argues that there has been distinctive reliance on and left all the magazines, news
by the publication of Robert Alexander's two vol worker self-organization and direct economic ac papers, bulletins, books, corre
ume Anarchists in the Spanish Civil War. (Vol 1: tion among American labor and that this can be spondence, and documentation
720 pages, Vol. 2: 768 pages, Janus Publishing seen as a particular kind of syndicalism. He brings that he had gathered since the 30's
Company, 1999). This voluminous book analyses this syndicalism to life through two case studies to Horacio Tarkus, the present di
the part played by the anarchists during the Civil of unionization efforts by Philadelphia longshore rector of the archive.
War and their unique social and economic experi men and New York City culinary workers during
ments behind the lines. Alexander casts fresh light the opening decades of the twentieth century. He The CeDinCi was established as a
into many areas, notably the anarchist's defense shows how these workers, initially affiliated with
space of reference for the recon
of Madrid and also life in the worker-controlled the radical IWW and later the conservative AFL, struction of the Argentinean Left
rural and urban collectives. The book is substan pursued a common logic of collective action at and as an archive for use by radi
tiated throughout and contains interviews with an the point of production that largely dictated their cal researchers whose work focuses
archists from the period. Researchers will also be choice of unions. on new perspectives of the
happy to know that Abel Paz's massive biography Argentinean left after the military
of Durruti has been transformed into a 55 minute Anyone with an interest in cities and a commit dictatorship.
video by Paco Rios (Fundacion de Estudios ment to direct action will welcome the following
Libertarios Anselmo Lorenzo). Another contribu books. No Trespassing! Squatting, Rent Strikes, A self-managed organization re
tion can be found in a new pamphlet from the Kate and Land Struggles Worldwide by Anders Corr
lying completely on volunteer la
Sharpley Library entitled Umberto Marzocchi: (256 pages, South End Press, October 1999) is bor, the CeDinCi has consolidated
Remembering Spain, Italian Anarchist Volunteers an international study on how people have taken a large amount of information for
in the Spanish Civil War {2% pages, Kate Sharpley over vacant buildings and unused land. Corr pre public use, free of charge, and they
Library, 1999). sents a study of fired banana plantation workers are currently working on a com
in Honduras, whose homes, churches, and schools
prehensive catalog. CeDinCi also
Two new works will help fill the gaps in the lit were bulldozed by Chiquita Brands International, publishes a political and cultural
erature on anarchism outside of Europe and the and how they forced the Cincinnati-based multi magazine, El Rodaballo, twice a
United States. The first book length national to allot alternate land, year. In addition, they have started
treatment of Cuban anarchism will rebuild homes and infrastructure, a publishing project, El Cielo par
be published this fall. Cuban Anar and provide for new self-man Asalto, which has already pro
chism: The History of a Movement aged business collectives. He also duced thirty titles.
(128 pages, See Sharp Press, Octo sketches a vivid portrait of the
ber 1999, trans. Chaz Bufe) by Frank 4~~» San Francisco squatting organi
They also offer seminars, lectures
Fernandez of the Movimiento zation Homes Not Jails, taking and workshops where radical in
Libertario Cubano covers the period readers along as activists open tellectuals can gather to discuss
from the 1850s to the present and LEaSQtiS PHGM KOSOVO vacant buildings and house doz issues. Funding for any radical
concludes with an essay on Cuba's ens of homeless people every project is always limited, and per
possible future. El Expreso: Un night. The book is addressed not haps more so for Argentina, and
Intento de acercamiento a la only to activists and academics CeDinCi welcomes any
Federacion Anarquista del Centro de interested in a global perspective fundraising advice.
la Republica Mexicana (1936-1944) on land and housing, but anyone
by Chantal Lopez and Omar Cortes searching for strategies of social For information, please contact
(80 pages, Ediciones Antorcha, 1999) change and sources of popular CeDinCi at: Calle Sarmiento 3433
is a Spanish language book-length pamphlet ana revolt. Also worthy of note is Avant Gardening:
(CP1196) Buenos Aires, Argen
lyzing the history of this organization, containing Ecological Struggle In The City & The Worlded tina or e-mail: [email protected]
both commentary as well as many appendices. ited by Bill Weinberg and Peter Lamborn Wilson or [email protected]
(169 pages, Autonomedia, June, 1999). This an
The history of American labor radicalism will be thology contains writings about the cultural, so- ~ Eva Garcia
come a little broader thanks to Howard continued on page 9
5 Fall 1999
Perspectives
continued from page 1
CHAIA HELLER:
Ecology, Desire and Revolution,
BIOGRAPHY
The whole notion of this shift, within the context be able to react to the "what is" through protest,
ChaiaHeHergrewup in Stamford, of Utopian discourse, is seen as a qualitative elabo
reform, nihilism, or endless description.
Connecticut, a child of middle ration of meaning, social relationships, the mean
class Jewish parents. Although her
ing of freedom, pleasure, etc. y.
parents were not radical, she was ou are currently pursuing a Ph.D. in anthro
exposed to radical ideas at a very I think that today we have lost our revolutionary pology at a major university, yet the post-struc
young age by attending an alter and evolutionary nerve. The problem is that the turalist intellectual environment of the university
native elementary school where cultural evolutionary theories of Adam Smith, is marked by a disregard for a radical politics
she was exposed to non-hierarchi Ricardo and then later Marx were predicated on focusing on a revolutionary universal theory and
cal and creative ways of thinking. biological evolutionary theories, which were in instead focuses exclusively on the post-structur
Ironically, Chaia's parents didn't herently flawed. We have been coming to terms alist project of describing, analyzing, and
realize the political transformation with those flaws. They had a vision based on the problematizing, focusing almost exclusively on the
taking place and thought she notion of nature and history as the realm of ne particular. How are you able to pursue a revolu
would go through life as a "nor
cessity. They believed that biological and cultural tionary universal project?
mal" person. evolution was a series of knowable, determined,
and necessary stages inevitably moving in a gen The particular is the obsession of post-structural
Chaia never stopped being politi eral, universal way towards a knowable, hard telos. ism and I am in a very post-structuralist depart
cized. In her early 20*s she im This notion really hit its limit at the end of the ment. I find this approach methodologically use
mersed herself in radical politics, second World War when it became frighteningly ful as an anthropologist and ethnographer. If you
came out as a lesbian, and moved clear that there was not some inevitable linear, want to go into a molecular biology lab in Paris,
to Burlington, Vermont, to study knowable, scientific progression of cultural, so for instance (that's what I've been studying), you
with Murray Bookchin. She cred cial and political life that would necessarily end want to understand the local site-specific culture
its her painful encounter with hos in some good, progressive, rational way. The ho of that lab and practices of those scientists. It is
tility in the left in the form of sex locaust, along with Stalin and Hiroshima, is just very useful to be attentive to the multi-layered re
ism, homophobia and anti- one of the many horrors that demonstrated this. lationships between the people and the instruments
Semitism as an experience that has that constitute those science institutions. Ethnog
concretized her relation to oppres I think that all of these events pointed to the un raphy is a meditation on the particular, a phenom-
sion and .continually keeps her bearable irrationality of what is erroneously called enological approach that asks you to walk into a
fighting. These encounters made "western civilization." The problem is that instead situation and, as best you can, get inside the heads
her realize that a general analysis of realizing that the model of evolution and revo of the people you are trying to understand.
of hierarchy is not sufficient in it lution we were using was inherently flawed and
self to undo particular manifesta based upon an understanding of evolution as a Where post-structuralism is extremely un-useful
tions of hierarchy and oppression. determinable unfolding of necessary stages, [many is its inability and disinterest in bringing some
radical theorists] decided to renege completely on sort of universal or, dare I say, objective set of
While pursuing her revolutionary the project of articulating evolutionary and revo criteria to bear upon judging the ethics of the prac
ideas, Chaia worked for many lutionary theory and practice. If you renege on this tices in those institutions. I find this highly prob
years as a clinical social worker for project, you can basically give up any discussion lematic because, for example, when I go into the
women struggling with domestic or vision of "what ought to be". So, basically, you molecular biology lab and talk to people who are
abuse and poverty. Chaia is cur can have a post-structuralist response, which is to doing fundamental research for agricultural bio
rently a faculty member at the In analyze, describe, problematize the particular technology. I need to be able to understand the
stitute for Social Ecology in "what is" that surrounds us or you can protest, particular nature of their work and thinking and
Plainfield, Vermont, where she has reform and try to destroy the "what is". But you I also need to make some judgements about that
taught eco-feminism, among other will continually eschew the question of "what and I feel responsible as a radical theorist to say
courses social ecology courses, for ought to be" and how to move from the "what is" "this is the stable, universal, and very general set
many years now. She is also cur to the "what ought to be." of ethical criteria I now appeal to when I'm going
rently pursuing a degree in anthro- to make judgements about these practices." So, I
pologyatihe University of Massa I believe the Utopian question is inherently predi make a judgement about the fact that private cor
chusetts. cated on that movement between "what is" and porations are increasingly taking over public re
"what ought to be" or at the very least some will search institutions, that capital driven institutions
Chaia is indebted to Murray ingness to posit a "what ought to be" that is quali are now increasingly taking over public science
Bookchin for his intellectual guid tatively better than the "what is." I think that un research institutions. I also make a judgement
ance and generosity of spirit Chaia til we can go back and rethink the premises that about the implications of this for agricultural
also counts among her influences were the foundations for biological and cultural economy and for science practice in general. I'm
Audre Lourde, James Baldwin, evolutionary theory, until we can firm up our cri now moving from the particular to some wider,
Emma Goldman, Ynestra Xing, tique and transcend those limitations (which I be more general or universal analysis and judgement
and Peggy Luhrs. lieve social ecology does), we will remain in a of these events. This is where I feel the academy
counter-revolutionary period where we will only is currently falling very short.
Perspectives Fall 1999
An Interview with Chaia Heller
People are not encouraged to take that next at the beginnings of the New Left. He saw in all the particular social, cultural, historical
step. People are, in a certain, very quiet way, some of the social movements the potential events that shape and define us. The chal
discouraged from making those judgments for the particular to become universalized, lenge is to fulfill that potential reconciliation
(for example, by simply not seeing any ar for people to uncover and understand some between the Old and New Left. We need to
ticles that voice those concerns published in common universal humanity amd thus rec go back and understand what was emerging
the recognized academic journals). It's made oncile humanity's relationship to the natural in the new social movements and understand
very clear to people in the academy - par world and to each other. He saw within femi how we can elaborate on that dialectic be
ticularly within the post-Marxist, post-struc nism the potential for a trans-class social tween the particular and the universal, be
tural left - that you're not supposed to draw movement; women of all classes would be tween the social and the political. Social ecol
revolutionary implications from the judge able to understand their particular relation ogy emerges out of that logic, out of that at
ments that you make about the particular ship to male-dominated hierarchy and also tempted reconciliation.
events you study. I find this to be highly prob to an ecological struggle. You see in the first
lematic but not at all surprising. moments of social ecology a tremendous un J[ ou state "I believe that social ecology,
derstanding of and appreciation for the par feminism, and social anarchism can help il
Social ecology is your major influence yet ticular. luminate a definition of desire that is pro
social ecology, as a more general theory of foundly social, rather than purely romantic
oppression, lacks attention to social issues What happens is the inability of a social or individualistic. " Considering that each of
such as feminism, which you deal with in your movement to take the next step towards the these tendencies can subsume the others in
book. Does your attention to social issues universal and towards the political - the clas importance, how are we to relate them to each
pose any difficulties in terms of writing as a sical sense of the political as the citizen and other in a complimentary way?
social ecologist? subject acting within a citizens assembly to
manage his and her everyday life within a It depends on how you define anarchism,
I'm dealing with a tension that exists between community. The inability of the social move feminism or social ecology. I locate them
the Old and New Left and I see social ecol ments to get there and to flesh out the social within what I call the social tradition, which
ogy as a New Left response to the Old Left, to reach the political, has been such a source was the response to the shift from feudalism
by an Old Leftist. What marked the Old Left of disappointment that social ecology has of into capitalism, marked by a striving towards
was an emphasis on the universal subject, on ten dismissed some of those movements as a greater sociality rather than a greater indi
a revolutionary universal theory. That uni being inevitably co-optable, particularistic, vidualism. Within the social tradition, peas
versal revolutionary subject was the worker ensconced within a social sphere and thus ants, workers, women, and African Ameri
and the revolutionary project focused around unable to really play an important role in pro cans have tried to cultivate an understand
the issue of labor. Within the New Left we pelling a revolutionary political movement. ing of the social that had emancipatory and
saw the emergence of social issues, such as What I'm trying to do in this book is draw even Utopian implications. I see feminism,
ecology, the Vietnam War, civil rights, and out the revolutionary implications of what is social ecology and anarchism as being par
anti-nuclear movement, and particular social particular, subjective, social, and cultural. I ticular ways of talking about different dimen
identities such as gender and race. don't think the solution is to reject what is sions of the social project. Feminism would
subjective, social, and particular; as it is lit be a way to talk about the particular expres
What we began to appreciate in the New Left erally, ontologically, historically, and existen- sion of hierarchy in its masculinist form and
was the particular nature of the effects of hi tially impossible to do so. We are marked by women's attempts to articulate the nature of
erarchy and the fact that oppression and create
that hierarchies are not
ways to overcome it. An
just universal but that archism, social-anar
they are particularized Chaia Heller: Selected Works chism, has been a way to
in culture-specific talk about the emergence
ways. If we're ever go Ecology of Everyday Life; Rethinking the Desire and transcendence of hier
ing to be able to move for Nature. Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1999. archy in its most general
towards some sort of sense. Social ecology is the
universal revolution "For the Love of Nature: Ecology and the Cult of attempt to talk about the
ary movement, it can the Romantic" in Ecofeminism: Women, Animals, emergence of and solu
only be done through and Nature, ed. by Greta Gaard. Philadelphia: tions to ecological prob
an understanding of Temple University Press, 1993. lems and to talk about that
the particular ways hi within social and revolu
erarchy is practiced "Toward a Radical Eco-Feminism" in Renewing tionary political terms. Po
and reproduced. the Earth, The Promise of Social Ecology, ed. by tentially, I see all three dis
Murray [Bookchin] John Clark. London: Green Print, 1990. courses as being resonant
pointed this out in with one another when
Post-Scarcity Anar
chism, which he wrote continued on page 8
Fall 1999
Perspectives
Chaia Heller interview continued from page 7
placed within what I'm calling the social balkanization of movements and discussion believe this is ethical not because we believe
tradition. that really doesn't give us any more insight this is an efficient means to an ends or we
into how to make this revolutionary vision believe it is a necessarily realistic idea. The
They start to compete with each other when possible. fact is that we don't know that our ethical con
we become unable to understand the dialect cerns and visions are realizable but we do
between the universal and particular; when know (and this is a very key concept with ethi
JlJL ow does being a self-conscious mem
we feel we have to choose between being an ber of the radical left affect your experience cal thinking) that there is potential for our ethi
anarchist who is interested in the general in academia? cal visions and ideas to be actualized. Our eth
liberation of humanity and a feminist inter ics are drawn out of a set of potentialities that
ested in the particular lib I find that it makes me into a bit we can derive from a reading of social history
eration of women. When "People are concerned of curiosity, an oddity in a way and natural evolution as well.
we don't understand the an^ preoccupied with which saddens me and infuriates
dialectic between those tfce tfon of <how me. One of the biggest obstacles I think that we always need to be thinking
two kinds of liberation and 7 . I encounter in academia when about what is potential and what is ethical and
when we don't understand P°SSlDie IS your Strat- tolking tQ peQple ab(mt revolu. not what is merely practical and realizable.
feminism as an attempt for egy\ .. We're literally nonary ideas is the incredible ad- For me it is a philosophical and political prac
women to recover their embodying the logic of herence to pragmatism. People tice to continually think in ethical terms rather
humanity in a particular capitalism when we *** concerned and preoccupied than allowing myself to be appropriated by this
waythenwesetupanop- succumb to mstrumeil_ with the question of "how pos- highly pragmatic world we live in, the world
positional tension between M sible is your strategy." First of all, of capital. Capitalism is instrumental. All de
the two. The same could tal reason» they reduce your vision to a strat- cisions made by capitalists are always based
be said of social ecology, egy - asking 'how realistic is your on "will this means achieve our ends." Ulti
which tends to focus more on the universal strategy' - and if they feel that it's not realis- mately, I call this instrumental rationality in
than the particular. You could set up an op tic or likely to be efficient or successful, they ternalized capitalism. We're literally embody
position between social ecology's attempt to feel it is entirely reasonable to dismiss you. ing the logic of capitalism when we succumb
liberate humanity in the form of the citizen, to instrumental reason. It's very dangerous and
and women who are trying to emancipate What I try to emphasize with people, and to linked to the general lack of revolutionary
themselves from particular forms of oppres remind myself, is that we need to be able to nerve today.
sion. However, I believe that when we can distinguish between ethical rationality and w>
understand the dialectic between the particu instrumental rationality. Instrumental ratio
hat does the future hold for your work?
lar and the universal; when we can finally
nality is the kind of rationality that leads you
understand that the universal liberation of to look at a given practice as a means to an
humanity happens in particular ways by par end and if that particular means brings you I'm very interested in the transition from in
ticular people in particular times, the ten to the desired end, then it is rational. So, if dustrial to informational capital. The transi
sion between those discourses can be re tion from industrial to informational capital
you want to have a stateless society and you
solved. It can actually be a creative and dy believe that siezing state power will bring is predicated on a kind of techno-science prac
namic tension where we can start to encour tice that is reshaping the biological and cul
you to your desired ends then that is what
age and expect ourselves to always be ask you should do. On the other hand, an ethical tural landscape of the world. I'm looking at
ing how we can further generalize the revo rationality is a way of thinking in which your agricultural biotechnology as a case study of a
lutionary struggle by understanding the par practices are always accountable to and an new kind of flexible capitalist production that
ticular. swerable to a set of stable ethical criteria that is information based. I'm looking at how this
new technology is transforming agricultural
correspond to the kind of world you believe
For example, if we are libertarian ought to be. If you believe that the state ought economies around the world and moving to
municipalists attempting to figure out how to be transcended and that hierarchy is un wards transitions that will be as great as the
to reclaim the public sphere, the citizens as ethical then, even if you think that it is more transition from feudalism to capitalism.
sembly, we need to think about what are the possible or more realistic or pragmatic to cre
particular social constraints that inhibit ate a hierarchy to undo a hierarchy, you can This transition from industrial to informa
women from reclaiming their full human not ethically justify creating a hierarchy be tional capital will be accompanied by increas
ity that would be expressed through citizen cause you do not believe that a hierarchy con ingly global expressions of capital and
ship. To me, that's very exciting as a femi stitutes the kind of world you think ought to govemmentality, what I call "meta-states" and
nist project: women reclaiming their ability be. I think that being a self-conscious mem "meta-capital structures" like the World Trade
to become citizens. This project is one of ber of the radical left entails a distinction be Organization. They are extra-capitalistic struc
reclaiming the full range of our potentiality tween ethical and instrumental reason and I tures that are providing infrastructure for a
as human beings as rational thinking crea think there needs to be a collective commit new kind of socio-political order, the likes of
tures who can reflect, discuss, debate and ment towards embracing ethical reasoning which we cannot even imagine. I'm interested
decide on important matters. I think it's sad and saying: we're doing what we're doing in why it is that people can only talk about
that that tension between the particular and and we're thinking the way we're thinking agricultural biotechnology in terms of risk, en-
the universal is reduced to a sort of because this is the way it ought to be. We
continued on next page
Perspectives 8 Fall 1999
Chaia Heller continued from previous page
vironmental health risk; intimate discourse tional practices, like farmer unions, cellular people can think, say, and do about questions
of consumption, like labeling. I'm interested biology labs in the French equivalent of of biotechnology. I think this is enormously
in how and why people are able to expand USD A, consumers' associations, and ecology important because we need to know what is
the perimeters of that debate and discussion. groups can address this issue. How and why keeping people from thinking along revolu
I'm looking at the ways that local institu do these institutions shape and limit what tionary lines. ~
What's Happening continued from page 4
cial and political aspects of ecology, with par in philosophy, politics, science, music, art and As a focus point for debate, a theme is em
ticular emphasis on the ecological struggles literature in order to nourish anarchist solu ployed in each issue. Although articles whose
currently taking place in New York City. tions to the problems posed by the final de subject matter is not directly relevant to a
There are essays on community gardening cline of authoritarian communism and the theme may also be accepted, priority is given
as well as other aspects of a reconstructive emergence of a new hegemonic global capi to "thematic" essays. The upcoming issues
and oppositional urban strategy. Visitors as talism. It will contain leading editorial ar are: Postmodernism and the Democratic
well as residents of New York now have a ticles, research and interviews, in-depth Project (submissions by 11/30/99); and De
good opportunity to explore the history of analysis of alternative culture, articles and mocracy and Ethics (submissions by 3/31/00).
opposition in New York thanks to the release news appearing in the international libertar Additionally, D&N*s book review section fea
of Bruce Kayton's Radical Walking Tours of ian press, as well as reports on art, cinema, tures critiques of works that add to contem
New York City (206 pages, Seven Stories theatre, music and literature. Please write the porary currents of thought Reviews do not
Press, 1999). This book is both a tour guide editorial office at Libertaria, casella postale have to relate to the theme of each issue. For
and a social history, containing information 10667, 20110 Milano, Italy or e- general information on the journal and how
about specific social struggles (such as the mail: libert(2).plugit.net. For subscriptions, to submit a manuscript, see D&N's Home
battle for Tompkins Square Park) as well as please write to Editrice A, sezione Libertaria, Page (http://www.carfax.co.uk/dna-ad.htm).
individuals and organizations that have nour casella postale 9017, 00167 Roma, Italy Manuscripts should be sent (preferably by e-
ished radical movements in New York mail) to the editor, Takis Fotopoulos (20
throughout its history. IAS allies should consider submitting their Woodberry Way, London, N12 0HG, U.K.;
work to two publications in particular. De FAX: [phone]; E-mail:
Anarchist booklovers will want to attend the mocracy & Nature: the International Jour [email protected]). Social Anar
Fifth Annual Bay Area Anarchist Book Fair nal of Inclusive Democracy (D&N) would chism, a refereed journal of anarchist com
to be held in the Hall of Flowers in Golden like to encourage IAS grant recipients, ap mentary and analysis now in its 19th year,
Gate Park on April 15, 2000. There will be plicants, and supporters to consider writing would also like to encourage IAS supported
speakers, entertainment, and many, many for their tri-annual publication. The journal writers and allies to submit articles. They are
books. For more information contact Bound provides sharp, sophisticated coverage of especially interested in analyses of popular
Together Books at 1369 Haight Street, San democratic and green ideas, publishing con culture and everyday events from an anar
Francisco, CA 94117. tributions by radical thinkers from around the chist perspective, although they also welcome
globe. In hopes of facilitating dialogue, D&N pieces on other issues. The fall issue will con
Readers of Italian should welcome the ap offers a forum for the discussion of inclusive tain an index of the journal spanning the en
pearance of Libertaria, a quarterly magazine democracy (derived from a synthesis of two tire history of the publication and they are
devoted to the discussion of left libertarian major historical traditions—the classical also searching for a new editor. For more in
culture and politics scheduled to appear for democratic and the socialist—as well as radi formation contact Social Anarchism at 2743
the first time this October. Libertaria will cal green, feminist, indigenous, and Third Maryland Avenue, Baltimore, MD 21218. ~
contain original and contemporary research World movements) and other radical views.
Grant Updates continued from page 3
and Brian Tokar's anthology, Engineering in late 1999 or 2000). He was awarded $1000 and the anthology that will contain it is ten
Life: A People's Guide to Biotechnology, are in January 1997 for the second volume of his tatively titled Lost Histories: Anarchist Es
complete. They have been negotiating with Spanish Anarchists: The Heroic Years. says (scheduled for publication by
publishers and will begin final editing as Autonomedia in 2000). He was awarded $250
soon as they secure a publication contract. Peter Lamborn Wilson's introduction to the in June 1997.
They were awarded $1000 in June 1997. new edition of Enrico Arrigone's (aka Frank
Brand) autobiography has evolved into an ar Frank Adams continues to work on his es
Murray Bookchin continues research on the ticle that will appear in a collection of essays say, "The Educational Ideas and Management
Spanish anarchists. His work will appear in on anarchist history (The Autobiography of Practices of 19th and 20th Century Anarchists
Volume 3 of the Third Revolution: Popular Enrico Arrigone has been postponed). in Labor-Owned Cooperatives." He was
Movement in the Revolutionary Era (the Wilson's piece, which will probably be titled awarded $500 in June 1997. ~
book will be published by Cassell Academic "'Brand': an Italian anarchist", is complete
Perspectives 9 Fall 1999
IAS Development: Principles and Structures
by Paul Glavin
In these tough times for radical politics, the an otherwise neglected history while also tory of anarchism.
Institute for Anarchist Studies (IAS) contin proving inspiring or instructive. It is very
ues to have success. We have a well orga common for us to receive applications for Board Development
nized counter-institution run by dedicated, projects of this sort and certainly this type of The constitution and growth of the IAS board
principled anarchists; we have raised a good literature plays an important role in main of directors - the group that awards grants
deal of money, which we have given as grants taining a radical tradition. and sets organizational policy - was another
to more than a dozen radical writers, invested concern for the development committee.
in our endowment, and used to publish this However, we had to acknowledge that this
newsletter; and we continue to develop strong historical work is, by definition, disengaged One issue was the geographic location of
relationships with anarchists around the from contemporary circumstances and thus board members, who are presently scattered
world. We are both happy with and amazed can make only limited contributions to an an up and down the East Coast and usually only
by the growth of the project since its found archist critique of the present society. We con meet together at bi-annual -and all too brief-
ing in 1996. cluded that the IAS should try to prioritize board meetings. This circumstance is a con
works that contribute to an anarchist under sequence of an idea that has been normative
We have also begun thinking about the IAS's standing of contemporary social conditions: for the IAS board since its inception: that
future and this spring formed a development that is, social structures, their historical tra is, that shared political and theoretical com
committee to assess the IAS's strengths, jectories, and opportunities for transforming mitments are more important for the growth
weaknesses, as well as where we would like these structures. Of course we would not ad of the board than geographic proximity.
the organization to go. This committee di vocate scholarship for its own sake, but rather
vided its concerns into three broad areas: works that contribute to the development of However, the development committee dis
grant priorities, board development, and fi a vital anarchist theory and (ultimately) so cussed the limitations of this model and con
nances. The three members of uiis commit cial movement. For example, an anarchist es cluded that we should try to increase the per
tee met almost every week for five months say on the recent growth of the prison indus centage of board members who live near one
and used their discussions to formulate a se try and its relationship to the globalization another, specifically in New York City. Al
ries of organizational proposals that were of capitalism seems more important now than though shared ideals are essential to any ini
ultimately presented to and voted upon by the an essay on Lucy Parsons and her connec tiative, it is hard to sustain a common project
IAS board of directors. tion to the Chicago anarchists of the 1880s. when people are unable to meet on a regular
We also agreed that programmatic works basis. This problem is especially pressing at
The development committee discussions and should be a low priority for the IAS: we be a time such as the present, when there are
proposals inspired the IAS board, resulting lieve it is necessary to flesh out some of the not radical social movements compelling
in changes in the IAS and a renewed sense more basic outlines of an anarchist critique people to gather at meetings, conferences,
of common mission. The following article and vision before getting too concrete about protests, and other activities that help over
presents some of the basic outlines of our dis solutions. ride the impact of physical distance.
cussions. I believe they are relevant not only
to IAS supporters and allies but also anyone Another important issue that we discussed is A more locally based board would help us
involved in creating and maintaining a the need to expand our support to both groups nourish more personal and cultural bonds
counter-institution today. and concerns that have typically received little among board members. It would encourage
attention within anarchism. For example, a sense of community and give us something
Grant Priorities many critiques of patriarchy and white su to draw upon for strength and sustenance as
Our most political and theoretical discussions premacy have been at least implicitly anar we face challenges in the course of building
occurred while reevaluating the IAS's grant chist in their anti-authoritarianism and re the IAS. We recognized that many groups
priorities. Up until now the IAS board has jection of hierarchy. Clearly works such as on the left have failed, at least in part, be
approached each round of applications on a these are integral to a broad project of anti- cause they have overlooked the importance
case-by-case basis, guided by very general authoritarian social transformation. We also of cultural connections and, more specifi
criteria such as the importance of a work to concluded that it is important to extend our cally, the value of friendship, trust, and genu
an anarchist critique of domination and the support to those traditionally excluded by the ine personal affinity.
author's financial circumstances. However, dominant processes of intellectual produc
we felt a need and an obligation to be more tion. Typically the most privileged groups or A locally based board would also have spe
specific about the types of work the IAS individuals - white, male, and academic - cific organizational benefits. First, it would
should support. dominate anarchist and radical theory (this help us develop a more collective approach
has been an issue for the IAS as well) and we to administrative work. The vast majority
One of the first dilemmas we confronted was believe the IAS should help challenge this. of this work has fallen on the General
the distinction between scholarship about an Although this is really nothing new in the Director's shoulders, which is both too much
archism versus anarchist scholarship. Schol wake of the so-called new social movements work for one person and also creates a po
arship about anarchism, such as Paul Avrich's and in an era of multi-culturalism, it is es tentially bad dynamic in which the General
works, can illuminate important aspects of sential to reaffirm in the context of the his- continued on page 12
Perspectives 10 Fall 1999