Table Of Content1
ro essor or an eterson
n iversi 0 o r o no
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ontents
The Beginnings of Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud .................. page 39
Biographical Overview . page 39
The Breuer Period . page 42
Personality Theory . 43
Structural Constructs 43
Motivational Constructs . page
Time-Perspective Constructs . page 62
Individual Di ffere-nceCso nstructs 76
Psychopathology and Psychotherapy . 80
Theory of Illness . page 80
Theory of Cure 93
Therapeutic Techniques . 102
Summary . 108
Outline of Important Theoretical Constructs . page 111
Notes . page 113
The Analytical Psychology of Carl Jung . . . page 176
Biographical Overview page 176
Personality Theory ................................................. . ........ page 180
Structural Constructs . . page 180
Motivational Constructs . page 195
Time-Perspective Constructs . . page 208
Individual Di fferences Con-structs . . . . . . page 211
Psychopathology and Psychotherapy . . page 221
Theory of Cure . page 22 7
Therapeutic Techniques .. . . page 246
Summary . page 253
Outline of Important Theoretical Constructs . page 256
Notes . page 258
Chapter 9 Applied Phenomenology: The Client-Centered Psychology of
Carl R. Rogers 565
Background Factors in Rogerian Thought . page 565
Biographical Overview of Carl R R.ogers page 576
Personality Theory .„,.„..., page 581
Structural Constructs . page 581
Motivational Constructs page 587
Time-Perspective Constructs page 591
Individzzal Differ-ences Construct.s page 594
Psychopathology and Psychotherapy page 596
Theory of Illness . page 596
Theory of Cure . page 599
Techniques of Therapy and Life Processes page 608
Summary . page 613
Outline of Important Theoretical Constructs . . page 616
Notes page 617
Chapter 10 Exist'ential Analysis or Daseinsanalysis:
Binszzranger and Boss 619
Existential Philosophy page 619
Existential Themes in Oriental Philosophy 624
Biographical Overview of Ludwig Binswanger and Medard Boss ........ page 630
Personality Theory . 632
Structural Constructs . page 632
Motivational Constructs 640
Time-Perspective Constructs page 644
Individual Differences C-onstruct.s. . . page 647
Psychopathology and Psychotherapy page 647
Theory of Illness. . . page 647
Theory of Cure . 652
Therapeutic Techniques 655
Summary page 658
Outline of Important Theoretical Constructs . . . . . . . . page 661
Notes 662
Chapter 11 Two Kinds of Constractive Theories:
Jean Pi aget and George A. Kelly page 664
The Evolutionary Rationa1ism of Jean Piaget . page 665
Biographical Overview .... page 665
Personality Theory page 669
Structural Constructs page 669
Motivational Constructs page 684
Time-Perspective Constructs . page 690
Individzza/ Differ-ences Constructs . . page 704
Implications for A bnorznal Behavior . page 707
George A.Kelleys' Psychology of Personal Constructs . . page 708
Biographical Overview . . page 708
Personality Theory . . page 711
Structural Constructs . . page 711
Motivational Constructs . . page 721
Time-Perspective Constructs . page 726
Individual Di fferenc-eCso nstructs . . page 728
Psychopathology and Psychotherapy page 728
Theory of Illness . page 728
Theory of Cure page 733
Therapeutic Techniques page 739
Summary page 743
Outline of Important Theoretical Constructs . page 748
Notes . page 751
Cha ter1
e Be innin s o
Psyc oana ysis:
Si mun Freu
»ographical Overview
Sigrnund Freud was born 6 May 1856 in the
small town of Freiberg, Moravia (Czechoslo-
vakia). He was of Jewish extraction and
proud of his heritage but never practiced the
religion. His father, a merchant and a free-
thinker, had been widowed, and Sigmund
was the first child of the father 's second wife.
She was twenty-one years old at the t ime,
and it is not surprising that Sigmund grew
to be the apple of his mother's eye. He was
a well-behaved son, and he tells us in later
years that he stood at the head of his gram-
mar school class for the ful l seven years.'
When he was about four or five years old,
his family relocated in Vienna, Austria, a
more cosmopolitan environment and the city
in which Freud was to live and cwork for the
majority of his e ighty-three years. As an
adult he was critical of Vienna, but he also
seems to have loved the city, for he would
not leave his residence at Berggasse 19 until
forced to do so by the threat of hostility after
the Nazis entered Austria in 1939. He finally
40 Mixed Kantian-Lockean Models in Classical Psychoanalysis Part I
Sigmund Freud
gave in to the urgings of fr iends and emi- provided him by a tough-minded physiology
grated to England where, on 23 September professor named Ernst B r i i cke. B r i i cke,
1939, he died after suffering for almost two whom Freud grew to admire greatly, once
decades with cancer of the mouth and jaw. swore to follow the scientific canon that "no
As a young man Freud was undecided other forces than the comrrmn physical-
about what career he would pursue. He was chemical ones are active within the organ-
more drawn to human than to natural sci- ism." ' As we shall see, this traditional New-
e nce problems,' and for a t i m e h e g a v e t onian view of sc ience was to s tay w i t h
serious consideration to the study of l aw . Freud and end up in a much-disguised
Thanks to inspiration f rom D a rwin a n d form as his theories of instincts and libido.
Goethe, Freud eventually settled on medicine, Working in Br i i cke's laboratory, Freud
but he was the First to admit that he was d id many studies on the structure of the
never a doctor in the usual sense of the term.' nervous system and devised a method of
After eritering premedicine at the University staining cells for microscopic study that in
of Vienna in 1873, Freud found h imself its own right earned him a minor reputation.
greatly attracted to the career of a basic sci- Freud never experimented successfully, in the
entist. This attraction was based on the model sense of validation through the design of a
study (see Introduction ). His view of science
stressed careful observation. But events were
Chapter I The Beginnings of Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud 41
to make a career as university scholar impos- Joseph Breuer, a neurologist like himself but
sible for Freud. Only a l imi ted number of an older, more settled and successful practi-
positions were available, and Briicke had two tioner in the Vienna area. Later, Breuer was
excellent assistants ahead of Freud. Time had instrumental in helping Freud to establish a
slipped by, and Freud's medical class had al- practice in Vienna. He was important in the
ready graduated. He had also, in the rnean- evolution of psychoanalysis as well, and we
t ime, met and fallen in love with Mar tha shall turn to Freud's professional relations
Bernays, the young woman who was to be- with him in the next section.
come his wife. Since income was now more Another important fr iend of Freud's in
than ever an important consideration, Freud his early years as practitioner was Wilhelm
talked things over with Briicke and decided Fliess, who had apparently been introduced
to go on, complete his medical degree, and to Freud by Breuer. Fliess was a successful
enter medical practice as a neurologist (spe- nose-throat specialist who practiced in Berlin,
cialist in the nervous system ). thus accounting for the need to correspond
Before doing so he was fortunate enough- through the mails with his friend in Vienna
with the help of Briicke — to obtain a small (though they also met fairly regularly to ex-
t raveling grant, which permit ted him t o change scientiFic points of view ). Fortunately,
spend a year (1885) in Paris studying under Fliess kept all of his letters from Freud, and
the famous neurologist Jean Charcot at the this correspondence reveals the remarkable
Salpetriere (mental hospital ) . In 1889 he fact that virtually all of Freud's theoretical
again returned to France to observe the ideas had been sketched in during the period
work of Bernheim in Nancy. Both Charcot o f 1887 through just after the turn of the
and Bernheim were conducting experiments twentieth century; the 1890s were especially
on hysterics with the use of hypnotism. Hyr important: Freud observed that the "secret of
teria is a mental disorder (neurosis) in which d reams" was revealed to him on 2R j u l y
patients believe they have lost some sensory 1895.' His father died in October 1896, which
(like vision) or motor (like walking) function, seems to have increased certain anxiety ten-
although they have not. Under hypnosis the dencies and psychosomatic problems (colitis)
patient suRering from hysterical blindness or which troubled Freud throughout his l i fe.
lameness can often be made to see or walk Having by this time worked out a general
again. Students of Freud have noted that his approach to the study and t r eatment of
contact with the French helped support him neuroses, Freud began in 1897 his celebrated
years later, when he began to deviate from the self-analysis, from which we t race the per-
kinds of chemical-mathematical theories to sonality theory and psychotherapy procedure
which Briicke had limited his scientiFic ex- now called psychoanalysis; In the 1900 — 1901
planations.' period Freud published his two great initial
After a short stay in Berlin, where Freud works, The Interpretation o f Dreams (Vol-
served a medical residency in neurology umes IV and V ) and The Psychopathology
(which included the direction of a children' s of Everyday Life (Volume VI ). These books
ward), he returned to Vienna to marry and mark Freud's beginnings as the father of
to take up the practice of neurology. Today, modern personality theory.
his medical specialty would come under the
heading of neuropsychiatry, or simply psy-
chiatry. Even before he had t r aveled to
France, Freud had made the acquaintance of
42 Mixed Kantian-Lockean Models in Classical Psychoanalysis Part I
Freud was soon to attract a group of sup- hypnosis and taken back through time (time
porters, among whom the more famous were regression), she could recall the onset of each
Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Sandor Ferenczi, hysterical symptom ( taken in tu rn ). The
Otto Rank, Karl Abraham, and Ernest Jones. common factor in al l these recollected be-
He was not to hold the friendship of all these ginnings was that Anna was feeling some
men, however; in fact, Freud's l ife is the kind of strong emotion at the t ime, which
story of a man with a tendency(if not a for various reasons she could not express. For
weakness) to reject or be rejected by those example, she was feeling anger toward her
colleagues whose views opposed his own. father, but as a good daughter she refrained
Breuer, Fliess, Adler, Jung, Ferenczi, and from expressing her growing rage. Instead,
Rank — not to mention others — were to sepa- she found herself unable to understand her
rate from Freud on more or l ess f r iendly native German tongue when her father spoke
terms; the separation with Adler was prob- to her, though she could still communicate
ably the most bitter. in English! Gradually, her inability to under-
Freud made one trip to the United States stand German spread to contacts with others
in 1909 at the invitation of G. Stanley Hall, as well.
who invited him and Jung to speak at Clark Breuer encouraged Anna to express her
University. As he grew in stature and repu- formerly unexpressed emotions while under
tation he was also active in helping to es- hypnosis and reliving the old situation, and
tablish the International Psycho-Analytic As- to his complete surprise he found that as she
sociation with an accompanying journal; it worked through each symptom in this fash-
began as a small group of friends in Vienna ion it disappeared. Breuer called the situation
and then spread throughout the world. out of the past in which Anna had not re-
acted emotionally the pathognomic situation
and the emotion that she did not express, the
The Breuer Period strangulated a Pect. ( It is common for the
words aPecr and emotion to be used inter-
Around 1880, while Freud was still in medi- changeably in psychology. )
cal school, Breuer undertook the treatment of The central symptom of the i m m obi le
a twenty-one-year-old woman who was bed- right arm provided the most dramatic hyp-
ridden, suffering from a series of hysterical notic recollection. Anna recalled sitting in a
symptoms like headache, loss of speech, in- chair next to the bed of her father, who was
ability to understand when spoken to, visual termilnyailll (he later died ). Her mother
distortions, and in particular, a pronounced was out of the house and the servants were
loss of function and feel ing in her r i gh t dismissed for the evening, so doubt lessly
arm.' This woman was to become the pa- Anna felt frightened at the responsibility of
t ient in the celebrated case of Anna O. (a looking after someone so close to death. Suf-
pseudonym ), which in a way is the very first fering from fatigue and prone to what she
psychoanalytical case history. On a hunch, called absences (momentary blackouts like
Breuer decided to use the hypnotic tactic that sleepwalking ), Anna seems to have had what
Freud later observed Charcot using. Breuer Breuer called a ua (ing dream 'She "saw" a.
found that when Anna was put under light b lack snake coming from the wal l next to
her father's bed, ready to bite the dying man.
Anna tried to fend the snake off, moving her
right arm from the back of her chair where
