Pavement Engineering: Principles and Practice, Third Edition

776 Pages·2018·48.748 MB·English

by  El-Korchi, Tahar, Mallick, Rajib Basu

Pavement Engineering

Pavement Engineering
Principles and Practice
Third Edition
Rajib B. Mallick and Tahar El-Korchi
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Contents
Preface.............................................................................................................................................xxi
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................xxiii
Authors ...........................................................................................................................................xxv
Contributors .................................................................................................................................xxvii
Chapter 1 Introduction and Description of Pavements .................................................................1
1.1 Importance.........................................................................................................1
1.2 Functions ...........................................................................................................1
1.3 Design and Construction ...................................................................................2
1.4 Maintenance and Rehabilitation ........................................................................3
1.5 Important Issues ................................................................................................4
1.6 Functional Requirements ...................................................................................4
1.7 Types and Uses of Pavements ............................................................................5
1.8 Different Features of Typical Asphalt Pavements .............................................6
1.9 Different Features of Typical Concrete Pavements ...........................................8
1.9.1 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements........................................................8
1.9.2 Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements ..............................................9
1.9.3 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements ..................................10
1.9.4 Composite Pavements .........................................................................11
1.9.5 Selecting the Type of Pavement .........................................................12
1.10 Research on Pavements ...................................................................................12
Questions ....................................................................................................................14
References ..................................................................................................................15
Chapter 2 Standards ....................................................................................................................17
2.1 Importance of Standards .................................................................................17
2.2 The American Society of Testing and Materials .............................................17
2.3 The American Society of State Highway and Transportation Officials ..........18
2.4 Use of Standards in Materials Selection, Mix Design, and
Structural Design .............................................................................................19
2.5 Use of Standards in Quality Control in Construction .....................................19
2.6 Important Specifications ..................................................................................19
Questions ....................................................................................................................22
References ..................................................................................................................22
Chapter 3 Principles of Mix and Structural Design and Construction of Asphalt Pavement .....23
3.1 Overview .........................................................................................................23
3.2 Traffic and Load Distribution Concept ...........................................................23
3.3 Materials and Layers .......................................................................................25
3.3.1 Soils ....................................................................................................26
3.3.2 Aggregates ..........................................................................................27
3.3.3 Asphalt ...............................................................................................27
3.4 Environment ....................................................................................................27
3.5 Mix Design ......................................................................................................29
3.6 Structural Design .............................................................................................29
vi Contents
3.7 Link between Mix and Structural Design .......................................................32
3.8 Theoretical Considerations for Structural Design ...........................................33
3.8.1 Hooke’s Theory of Elasticity ..............................................................33
3.8.2 Boussinesq’s Method ..........................................................................35
3.8.3 Application, Extension, and Refinement of Boussinesq’s Method .....39
3.8.4 Burmister’s Method for Two-Layer Systems ......................................40
3.8.5 Odemark’s Method of Equivalent Layers ...........................................42
3.8.6 Fox and Acum and Fox’s Solutions ....................................................44
3.8.7 Computer Programs ...........................................................................49
3.9 Principles of Good Construction .....................................................................51
3.10 Putting Everything Together ...........................................................................52
Questions ....................................................................................................................52
References ..................................................................................................................54
Chapter 4 Principles of Structural Design, Mix Design, and Construction of Concrete
Pavements ...................................................................................................................55
4.1 Overview .........................................................................................................55
4.2 Structural Design .............................................................................................56
4.3 Theoretical Considerations ..............................................................................57
4.3.1 Stresses due to Curvature and Bending in Slabs ................................58
4.3.2 Stresses due to Temperature Curling .................................................59
4.3.3 Stresses and Deflections due to Applied Loading ..............................62
4.3.3.1 Corner Slab Loading ...........................................................63
4.3.3.2 Interior Slab Loading ..........................................................65
4.3.3.3 Edge Slab Loading ..............................................................67
4.4 Computer Programs for Rigid Pavements .......................................................68
4.5 Combined Stresses...........................................................................................70
4.6 Stresses due to Friction ....................................................................................70
4.7 Joint Opening ..................................................................................................72
4.8 J oints ................................................................................................................73
4.8.1 Transverse Contraction Joints ............................................................73
4.8.2 Longitudinal Joints .............................................................................73
4.8.3 Construction Joints .............................................................................74
4.8.4 Expansion Joints .................................................................................76
4.8.5 Joint Design ........................................................................................77
4.8.6 Joint Spacing for Airfields ..................................................................79
4.8.7 Variable Joint Spacing ........................................................................79
4.8.8 Skewed Joints .....................................................................................80
4.8.9 Aggregate Interlock between Joints ...................................................80
4.8.10 Design of Dowels ...............................................................................81
4.8.11 Dowel Diameter Design .....................................................................81
4.8.11.1 Allowable Bearing Stress ...................................................81
4.8.11.2 Bearing Stress on One Dowel .............................................82
4.8.12 Tiebar Steel Design ............................................................................86
4.8.13 Traffic and Loads ...............................................................................87
4.9 C oncrete Properties and Mix Design ..............................................................88
4.9.1 Hydration, Strength, and Materials ....................................................89
4.9.1.1 Construction ........................................................................91
Questions ....................................................................................................................92
References ..................................................................................................................94
Contents vii
Chapter 5 Traffic .........................................................................................................................97
5.1 Different Types of Highway Traffic ................................................................97
5.2 Measurement of Traffic Loads ........................................................................97
5.3 Load Equivalency Factor and Equivalent Single-Axle Load ........................101
5.3.1 Flexible Pavements ...........................................................................102
5.3.2 Rigid Pavements ...............................................................................102
5.4 Alternative Load Equivalent Factor Concept ................................................104
5.5 Equivalent Single-Wheel Load ......................................................................107
5.5.1 Conversion to Equivalent Gear ........................................................107
5.5.2 Conversion to Equivalent Annual Departure ...................................108
5.6 Tire Pressure ..................................................................................................111
5.7 Speed .............................................................................................................111
5.7.1 Effect of Load and Tire Pressure .....................................................112
5.8 A ircraft Loading, Gear Configuration, and Tire Pressure ............................114
Questions ..................................................................................................................114
References ................................................................................................................115
Chapter 6 Drainage ...................................................................................................................117
6.1 Source and Effect of Water............................................................................117
6.2 Estimating Flow ............................................................................................117
6.2.1 Return Period ...................................................................................120
6.2.2 Rainfall Intensity ..............................................................................121
6.3 Hydroplaning and Surface Drainage System ................................................122
6.4 Inlets ..............................................................................................................128
6.5 Subsurface Drainage System .........................................................................129
6.5.1 Groundwater .....................................................................................129
6.5.2 Water Entering through Cracks ........................................................130
6.5.3 Artesian Aquifers .............................................................................131
6.5.4 Melting Snow ...................................................................................131
6.6 Design of Subsurface Drainage Structures ...................................................131
6.6.1 Design of Permeable Base ................................................................135
6.6.1.1 Materials for Permeable Base ...........................................138
6.6.2 Design of Separator or Filter Layer ..................................................138
6.6.2.1 Geotextile Separator Layer ...............................................140
6.6.3 Design of Edge Drains .....................................................................141
6.7 Consideration of Drainage in Pavement Design ............................................143
6.8 Pumping in Rigid Pavements ........................................................................143
6.9 Use of Software for Design of Drainage Structures ......................................145
Questions ..................................................................................................................156
References ................................................................................................................156
Chapter 7 Soil............................................................................................................................159
7.1 O verview .......................................................................................................159
7.2 Soils in Subgrade ...........................................................................................159
7.3 Mass–Volume Relationships ..........................................................................160
7.4 Grain Size Distribution: Gradation ...............................................................161
7.5 Effect of Water...............................................................................................164
7.6 Soil Classification ..........................................................................................166
7.6.1 AASHTO Method ............................................................................166
viii Contents
7.6.2 Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM) ....................................169
7.7 Density and Optimum Moisture Content ......................................................173
7.8 Hydraulic Conductivity .................................................................................174
7.9 Frost Susceptibility ........................................................................................175
7.10 Swell Potential ...............................................................................................179
7.11 Stiffness and Strength of Soils ......................................................................181
7.11.1 California Bearing Ratio Test (AASHTO T-193) .............................183
7.11.2 Resilient Modulus Test (AASHTO T-307) .......................................183
7.11.3 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (ASTM D6951) .................................187
7.12 Subgrade Soil Tests for Rigid Pavements ......................................................187
7.12.1 Plate Load Test .................................................................................187
7.13 Subbase and Unstabilized Base .....................................................................190
7.14 Soil Stabilization Concepts and Methods: Chemical and Mechanical .........191
7.14.1 Mechanical Stabilization by Densification or Compaction ..............191
7.14.1.1 Effect of Compaction on Soil Properties ..........................192
7.14.1.2 Field Compaction ..............................................................192
7.14.1.3 Field Control .....................................................................192
7.14.1.4 Measuring Devices ...........................................................192
7.14.1.5 Intelligent Soil Compaction System .................................192
7.14.2 Use of Geosynthetics ........................................................................194
7.14.3 Lime Treatment of Soils ...................................................................194
7.14.4 Cement Treatment of Soil.................................................................197
7.14.4.1 Mixture Design Process ...................................................198
7.14.5 Asphalt (Bituminous) Treated Soil ...................................................200
7.14.5.1 Stabilization Mechanism with Asphalt Treatment ...........200
7.14.5.2 Mix Design Procedure ......................................................201
7.15 Dust Control ..................................................................................................202
Questions ..................................................................................................................203
References ................................................................................................................203
Chapter 8 Aggregates for Asphalt and Concrete Mixes ...........................................................205
8.1 Definition, Parent Rock, and Types ...............................................................205
8.2 Suitability for Application .............................................................................206
8.3 Production......................................................................................................208
8.4 Overview of Desirable Properties .................................................................209
8.4.1 Properties Critical for Structural Layers ..........................................209
8.4.2 Properties Critical for Drainage Layers ...........................................209
8.4.3 Properties Critical for Asphalt Mix Layers ......................................209
8.4.4 Properties Critical for Cement Concrete Layers ..............................210
8.5 Gradation for Asphalt Pavements ..................................................................210
8.5.1 Aggregate Tests ................................................................................212
8.6 Specific Gravities and Absorption .................................................................216
8.7 Cleanliness and Deleterious Materials ..........................................................219
8.8 Toughness or Resistance against Abrasion Loss ...........................................220
8.9 Particle Shape and Surface Texture ...............................................................220
8.10 Durability/Soundness ....................................................................................222
8.11 Expansive Characteristics ..............................................................................222
8.12 Polishing and Frictional Characteristics .......................................................223
8.13 Aggregate Tests Specifically for Concrete ....................................................223
8.13.1 Fineness Modulus (FM; ASTM C125) ............................................223
Contents ix
8.13.2 Gradation ..........................................................................................223
8.13.3 Bulk Density and Voids in Aggregates Test .....................................224
8.14 Automated Aggregate Analysis (AASHTO TP81 and PP64) .......................225
8.15 Artificial Aggregates .....................................................................................225
Questions ..................................................................................................................225
References ................................................................................................................226
Chapter 9 Asphalt and Emulsions .............................................................................................227
9.1 A sphalt Binder ...............................................................................................227
9.2 N aturally Occurring Asphalts .......................................................................227
9.2.1 Lake Asphalt ....................................................................................227
9.2.2 Rock Asphalt ....................................................................................227
9.2.3 Gilsonite ...........................................................................................228
9.3 Refined Asphalt from Crude Oil ...................................................................228
9.4 Safe Delivery, Storage, and Handling of Asphalts ........................................228
9.4.1 Causes of Hazards and Precautions .................................................229
9.4.2 Health Hazards .................................................................................229
9.4.3 Precautions and Good Practices .......................................................229
9.5 Asphalt Binder Properties .............................................................................230
9.5.1 Specific Gravity: ASTM D-70 ..........................................................230
9.5.2 Cleveland Open Cup Method (Flash Point): ASTM D-92 ...............230
9.5.3 Solubility Test: ASTM D-2042 ........................................................230
9.5.4 Spot Test: AASHTO T-102 ...............................................................231
9.5.5 Penetration: ASTM D-5 ...................................................................231
9.5.6 Viscosity Tests ..................................................................................231
9.5.7 Softening Point (Ring and Ball) Test: ASTM D-36 .........................232
9.5.8 Fraass Breaking Point Test: BS EN 12593, BS 2000–8 ..................232
9.5.9 Ductility: ASTM D113 .....................................................................232
9.5.10 Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT): ASTM D1754 ..................................232
9.5.11 Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT): ASTM D-2872,
BS EN 12591, AASHTOT-240.........................................................232
9.6 Asphalt Binder Properties and Pavement Distress and Performance ............233
9.6.1 Aging of Asphalt Binder ..................................................................234
9.6.1.1 Hardening ............................................................................235
9.7 Stiffness .........................................................................................................236
9.7.1 Viscosity for Stiffness ......................................................................237
9.8 Viscoelastic Nature of Asphalt and Direct Measurement of Stiffness ..........240
9.9 Tensile Behavior ............................................................................................241
9.10 Superpave (Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements) ..................................243
9.10.1 High-Temperature Viscosity.............................................................243
9.10.2 Complex Modulus and Phase Angle ................................................244
9.10.3 Aging Tests .......................................................................................244
9.10.4 DSR Tests Conducted on Aged Asphalt ...........................................244
9.10.5 Low-Temperature Stiffness (ASTM D-6648, AASHTO T-313) ......247
9.10.6 Direct Tension Test (ASTM D-6723, AASHTO T-314) ...................248
9.10.7 Superpave Requirements ..................................................................248
9.10.7.1 Explanation .......................................................................250
9.10.8 Multiple Stress Creep Recovery Test (AASHTO T350,
Specification, AASHTO M332) .......................................................253
9.11 Recent Developments ....................................................................................255