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Patterns in Network Architecture This page intentionally left blank Patterns in Network Architecture A Return to Fundamentals JOHN DAY Upper Saddle River, NJ • Boston • Indianapolis • San Francisco New York • Toronto • Montreal • London • Munich • Paris • Madrid Cape Town • Sydney • Tokyo • Singapore • Mexico City Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are Editor-in-Chief claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was Karen Gettman aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed with initial capital letters or in all capitals. Acquisitions Editor The author and publisher have taken care in the preparation of this book, but make no expressed Chuck Toporek or implied warranty of any kind and assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. No liabil- ity is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of the Managing Editor use of the information or programs contained herein. Gina Kanouse The publisher offers excellent discounts on this book when ordered in quantity for bulk pur- Senior Project chases or special sales, which may include electronic versions and/or custom covers and content Editor particular to your business, training goals, marketing focus, and branding interests. For more Kristy Hart information, please contact: U.S. Corporate and Government Sales Copy Editor (800) 382-3419 Keith Cline [email protected] For sales outside the United States please contact: Indexer Erika Millen International Sales [email protected] Editorial Assistant Visit us on the Web: informit.com/ph Romny French Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Cover Designer Day, John D., 1947- Chuti Prasertsith Patterns in network architecture : a return to fundamentals / John Day. Composition p. cm. Gloria Schurick ISBN 0-13-225242-2 (hbk. : alk. paper) 1. Computer network architectures. 2. Computer net- works—Design. 3. Computer networks—Philosophy. 4. Internet—History. I. Title. Proofreader TK5105.52.D39 2007 San Dee Phillips 004.6—dc22 2007040174 Copyright©2008 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copy- right, and permission must be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechani- cal, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permissions, write to: Pearson Education, Inc Rights and Contracts Department 501 Boylston Street, Suite 900 Boston, MA 02116 Fax (617) 671 3447 ISBN-13: 978-0-132-25242-3 ISBN-10: 0-132-25242-2 Text printed in the United States on recycled paper at RR Donnelley in Crawfordsville, Indiana. First printing December 2007 To Heinz von Forester, who taught me how to think and To Dite, Kathleen, and Kinmundy, who gave me a foundation for life This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface The Seven Unanswered Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Chapter 1 Foundations for Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Beginning at the Beginning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Levels of Abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Protocol and Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Specifying Protocols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Informal Specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Formal Description Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Where to from Here. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Chapter 2 Protocol Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Protocol Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Elements of a Protocol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Data Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Constructing Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 The Size of PDUs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Mechanism and Policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 QoS Versus NoS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 A Short Catalog of Data Transfer Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Delimiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Initial State Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Policy Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Addressing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Flow or Connection Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Relaying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 vii viii PATTERNS IN NETWORK ARCHITECTURE Ordering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Fragmentation/Reassembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Combining/Separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Data Corruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Lost and Duplicate Detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Flow Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Retransmission Control or Acknowledgment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Authentication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Access Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Integrity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Confidentiality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Nonrepudiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Phases of Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 The Enrollment Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 The Establishment or Synchronization Phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 The Data Transfer Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Chapter 3 Patterns in Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 The Two Major Architecture Paradigms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 The Layered Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 The Beads-on-a-String Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 The Connectionless/Connection Debate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Finding for a Synthesis: The Easy Part. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 The Types of Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 How Many PDUs in a Protocol? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 The Types of Protocols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 The Architecture of Data Transfer PMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Finding a Synthesis: The Hard Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 CONTENTS ix Chapter 4 Stalking the Upper-Layer Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 A Bit of History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 The Upper Layer(s) of the ARPANET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 The OSI Attempt or “Green Side Up” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Network Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 HTTP and the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Directory- or Name-Resolution Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 What Distinguishes the Upper Layers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Semantic Significance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Location Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Chapter 5 Naming and Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Why Do We Need Naming and Addressing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 How the Problem Arose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Background on Naming and Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Foundations of Mathematics and Naming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Naming and Addressing in Telephony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Naming in Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 X.25 and the ITU. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 The Evolution of Addressing in the Internet: Early IP . . . . . . . . 154 OSI and NSAPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Addressing in IPv6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Looking Back over IPv6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 “Upper-Layer” or Application Addressing in OSI . . . . . . . . . . . 178 URI, URL, URN, and So On: Upper-Layer Addressing in the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Chapter 6 Divining Layers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Putting Protocols Together. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 What We Have Seen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

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Groundbreaking Patterns for Building Simpler, More Powerful Networks   In Patterns in Network Architecture, pioneer John Day takes a unique approach to solving the problem of network architecture. Piercing the fog of history, he bridges the gap between our experience from the original ARPANET and t
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Groundbreaking Patterns for Building Simpler, More Powerful Networks   In Patterns in Network Architecture, pioneer John Day takes a unique approach to solving the problem of network architecture. Piercing the fog of history, he bridges the gap between our experience from the original ARPANET and t

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