Table Of ContentEDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Peter W. Hawkes
CEMES-CNRS
Toulouse, France
Coverphotocredit:
TheoreticalsimulationofthecausticphenomenaappearingintheFresnelimageoftwo
alignedbiasedtips.Distancebetweenthetips1.5μm,potentialdifference100V,defocus
distance15mm,acceleratingelectronpotential300kV.Thesideoftheimageis1.6μm.
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DEDICATION
To Emma
v
FOREWORD
Myfirstencounterwithelectronopticswasformythesis,where,underthe
supervisionofProfessorUgoValdr(cid:1)e,Icalculatedtheaberrationcoefficients
of deflecting systems in order to evaluate their effect on the images of
superconducting materials of the first kind by means of the shadow edge
method.Mypreviousknowledgewaslimitedtobasicnotionsofgeometrical
light optics, like the thin lens formula, so I had to enter a new and
unexploredfield.
My first guide was the book by Hall, Introduction to Electron Microscopy,
which was soon followed by Glaser’s Grundlagen der Elektronenoptik, one of
the cornerstones of electron optics. My scholastic knowledge of German
was also very useful when I came across the beautiful electron interfero-
metryexperimentsperformedinTu¨bingenbytheMo€llenstedtgroup,which
IfoundinthePhysicsDepartmentlibraryintheattempttograspthemeaning
of the Aharonov–Bohm effect from the experimental point of view.
DuringafortuitoustrainjourneytoRomewithmyformerprofessorof
experimentalphysics,GianFrancoMissiroli,westarteddiscussingthereal-
izationofanelectroninterferenceexperimentfordidacticpurposes;andon
the way back, we decided that it was worthwhile to build an electron
biprism and start the experiments in Bologna. This was the beginning of
a lifelong collaboration and friendship. The didactic experiment was soon
followedbyresearchinthefieldofelectroninterferometry,whichhasnever
been interrupted and still continues.
However, thanks to the inspiration and imprinting of Gian Franco, the
didacticandculturalaspectsofourresearchhasalwaysplayedapredominant
role,oftenattheexpenseofthepurelyscientificpublicationsthataremore
usefulfortheacademiccareer.Themoststrikingexampleofthisisthework
incollaborationwithPierGiorgioMerlionthestatisticalaspectofelectron
interferencephenomena,wherewepostponedsomeresearchworkinorder
to realize the experiment of the buildup of the interference pattern by the
hits of single electrons on the screen.
Asauniversityteacher,Icouldalsodevelopmyinterestinbasicelectron
optics and microscopyfrom the assignment of lectures. In spite of the very
limitednumberofstudentsattendingthecourses,theinteractionwiththem
stimulatedabetterunderstandingandnotamererepeatingofthearguments,
so sometimes I was able to find new approaches to old topics and even to
publish them.
xi
xii Foreword
All this activity on these two fronts, university teaching and didactic
research in collaboration with the Bologna group, finally found its natural
outcomeinabook,madepossiblebymyearlyretirement,writteninItalian,
entitledMicroscopiaeolografiaconelettroniandpublishedin2013byBononia
University Press. The positive response from the Italian microscopy com-
munity (and from foreign friends able to read a bit of Italian) convinced
metowriteanEnglishversion.However,inordertomakethebookmore
palatabletoaninternationalaudiencesomechangeswerenecessary.Inaddi-
tiontominorrestyling,Icondensedintoonechaptertheresultsinthefield
ofelectronholography,focusedthechapteronhighresolutionmoreonthe
spherical aberration, and rewrote the chapters on the basic experiments on
electron interference and their interpretation, including more updated
material. This led to the change of the title.
My impression is that today, many electron microscopists, more inter-
estedintheapplications,arelookingattheinstrumentwithonlyafewbasic
notionsoflightoptics,likemyselfatthebeginningofmycareer.Moreover,
modernmicroscopesareextremelycomplicated,drivenmorebycomputer
softwarethanbyhumans,sothattheoverallsensationisthatofablackbox
beyond reach. It has thus lost the fascination of an instrument, which
joins the basic physics that we study in the first university years to the
most advanced physics represented by the gauge theories, of which the
Aharonov–Bohmeffectisthemoststrikingexample.Notonlythat,every
time we do experiments, we can literally see quantum physics in action.
Ihopethatthisbookwillopenthewaytoabetterunderstandingofthe
basic physics behind the instrument and an appreciation of its capabilities.
PREFACE
Although electron optics is now a mature subject, with textbooks at all
levels,thereisalwayssomeaspectthatdeservesmoreattention.Here,Giulio
Pozzifirstrehearsesthebasictheoryofelectronopticsbuthistextisunusual
in that several chapters are devoted to electron interference phenomena:
multipleslits,biprisms,theAharonov–Bohmeffectsandholography.Pozzi
andhiscolleaguesinBolognaarewellknownfortheirworkonthesethemes
anditisgoodtohavethisbroadaccount.Alastchapterexploresthespherical
aberration coefficient from several viewpoints.
IamverypleasedtoincludethisfreshtextintheseAdvances,inspiredby
the original Italian version but with many revisions, and am confident that
even seasoned electron opticians will find something new. Beginners will
appreciate the detailed derivations of much of the theory.
PETER HAWKES
xiii
FUTURE CONTRIBUTIONS
S.Ando
Gradientoperatorsandedgeandcornerdetection
J.Angulo
Mathematicalmorphologyforcomplexandquaternion-valuedimages
D.Batchelor
Softx-raymicroscopy
E.BayroCorrochano
Quaternionwavelettransforms
C.Beeli
Structureandmicroscopyofquasicrystals
C.Bobisch,R.Mo¨ller
Ballisticelectronmicroscopy
F.Bociort
Saddle-pointmethodsinlensdesign
E.Bosch,I.Lazic
High-resolutionSTEMandrelateddevelopments
K.Bredies
Diffusiontensorimaging
A.Broers
Aretrospective
N.Chandra,R.Ghosh,(vol.196)
Quantumentanglementinelectronoptics
A.CornejoRodriguez,F.GranadosAgustin
Ronchigramquantification
K.Edee
Unifiedformalismofmodalmethodsincomputationalelectromagnetics
C.Edgcombe
Electronphaseplates
J.Elorza
Fuzzyoperators
R.G.Forbes
Liquidmetalionsources
P.L.Gai,E.D.Boyes
Aberration-correctedenvironmentalmicroscopy
xv
xvi FutureContributions
M.Haschke
Micro-XRFexcitationinthescanningelectronmicroscope
R.Herring,B.McMorran
Electronvortexbeams
M.S.Isaacson
EarlySTEMdevelopment
K.Ishizuka
Contrasttransferandcrystalimages
K.Jensen,D.Shiffler,J.Luginsland
Physicsoffieldemissioncoldcathodes
M.Jourlin,(vol.197)
Logarithmicimageprocessing,theLIPmodel.Theoryandapplications
U.Kaiser
Thesub-A˚ngstro¨mlow-voltageelectronmicrocopeproject(SALVE)
T.Kirk,(vol.196)
Thenear-field-emissionscanningelectronmicroscope
A.I.Kirkland,R.Clough,J.Mir
Electrondetectors
C.T.Koch
In-lineelectronholography
O.L.Krivanek
Aberration-correctedSTEM
M.Kroupa
TheTimepixdetectoranditsapplications
B.Lencova´
Moderndevelopmentsinelectronopticalcalculations
H.Lichte
Developmentsinelectronholography
M.Matsuya
CalculationofaberrationcoefficientsusingLiealgebra
J.A.Monsoriu
Fractalzoneplates
L.Muray
Miniatureelectronopticsandapplications
S.A.Nepijko,V.G.Dyukov,G.Scho¨nhense,(vol.196)
Voltagecontrastmodeinascanningelectronmicroscopeanditsapplications
M.A.O’Keefe
Electronimagesimulation
FutureContributions xvii
D.Paganin,T.Gureyev,K.Pavlov
Intensity-linearmethodsininverseimaging
N.Papamarkos,A.Kesidis
TheinverseHoughtransform
H.Qin
Swarmoptimizationandlensdesign
Q.Ramasse,R.Brydson
TheSuperSTEMlaboratory
B.Rieger,A.J.Koster
Imageformationincryo-electronmicroscopy
P.Rocca,M.Donelli
Imagingofdielectricobjects
J.Rodenburg
Lenslessimaging
J.Rouse,H.-n.Liu,E.Munro
Theroleofdifferentialalgebrainelectronoptics
J.Sa´nchez
Fishervectorencodingfortheclassificationofnaturalimages
P.Santi
Lightsheetfluorescencemicroscopy
P.Sciau
Transmissionelectronmicroscopy,Emerginginvestigationsforculturalheritagematerials
R.Shimizu,T.Ikuta,Y.Takai
Defocusimagemodulationprocessinginrealtime
T.Soma
Focus-deflectionsystemsandtheirapplications
I.J.Taneja
Inequalitiesandinformationmeasures
T.Tanigaki
Aberration-correctedhigh-voltageelectronmicroscopy
J.Valde´s
RecentdevelopmentsconcerningtheSyst(cid:1)emeInternational(SI)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TherearemanypeopleIwouldliketothankfortheirhelpwith,andinfluence
on, my understandingofelectronopticsandmicroscopyduringmy lifelong
activity.Ilimitmyselfheretothosewhocollaboratedmoredirectlywiththe
papersformingthebackboneofthisbook:MarcoBeleggia,RaffaellaCapelli,
ClaraCapiluppi,AnnamariaDiSebastiano,OrianoDonati,RitaFabbri,Pier
Francesco Fazzini, Stefano Frabboni, Cesare Frigeri, Alessandro Gabrielli,
Gian Carlo Gazzadi, Filippo Giorgi, Vincenzo Grillo, Takeshi Kawasaki,
GiorgioMatteucci,FranciscoMedina,PierGiorgioMerli,AndreaMigliori,
Gian Franco Missiroli, Michele Muccini, Enrico Nichelatti, Luca Ortolani,
NicolaSempriniCesari,AkiraTonomura,FilippoUbaldi,UgoValdr(cid:1)e,Mas-
simoVanzi,MauroVilla,andAntonioZoccoli.Lastbutnotleast,aparticular
acknowledgmenttoStefanoPatuelli,whosetechnicalandgraphicalassistance
over the years has been invaluable.
CREDITS
Thefollowingeditorsandscientificassociationsaregratefullyacknowl-
edgedfortheirauthorizationtopublishfigurestakenfrompublishedpapers:
Academic Press, American Association of Physics Teachers, American
InstituteofPhysics,AmericanPhysicalSociety,Elsevier,InstituteofPhysics,
Società Italiana di Fisica, Società Italiana di Scienze Microscopiche, and
Springer Science + Business Media.
xix
