Table Of ContentParental Aggression and Adolescent Peer Relationships
Alison Kay Walker Schlatter
Charlottesville, Virginia
B.A. University of Hawaii, 1992
M.A. University of Virginia, 1996
A Dissertation presented to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Virginia in Candidacy for
the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Psychology
University of Virginia
August, 2000
___________________________________
Joseph P. Allen
___________________________________
Robert E. Emery
___________________________________
Melvin N. Wilson
___________________________________
Robert S. Marvin
Parental Aggression and Peer Relationships 2
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the many people who have supported me throughout my writing and my graduate education.
Joe, you have been an integral part of my learning both personally and professionally. I have learned more about the
importance of autonomy and relatedness through being challenged, supported, respected and appreciated by you than I did in
my academic endeavors. You have provided a wonderful example for balancing family and career. I will forever appreciate
your warmth, your support and your kindness. I would also like to thank each of my dissertation committee members Bob
Emery, Melvin Wilson and Bob Marvin, who have each been challenging and supportive in their own right. Your thoughtful
comments on my paper went a long way to making it a better final product.
Many special people in graduate school have touched my life. I could never have made it through the many
challenges without the support of my comrades Glenda, Sandra, and Kathleen. Nobody got left behind, and I for one could
not have done it without the support of you three beautiful women. The working meetings at Es Café, Durty Nelle’s and
BW3 didn’t hurt either. Serrita, I will always remember you “holding my anxiety” especially on that most important day. I
have always been able to count on you for a laugh even when nothing seemed very funny. Monica, what would I have done
without you?! I thank you for your patience, your kindness, but most of all your friendship.
I would also like to thank my family, without whom this would not have been possible. Mom, your willingness to
come and keep the ship afloat has been appreciated by both Jeff and me. I also thank you for teaching me that being a
woman was something to take pride in. I learned from you that I could accomplish anything. Dad, you have been willing to
listen when the going got tough and have always found some way to make it a little easier. You taught me to expect more
from myself, and then to reach a little further. Zach, you have attended so many meetings and classes you should earn
honorary credit for your first year of college. Your patience and your ability to find fun in whatever we were doing, made
the business of graduate school much more enjoyable. Kyle, you have added such joy to our family. None of us will forget
the excitement and conviction in your voice as you said the word dissertation at age 2. Most importantly, I want to thank
my husband, Jeff. You have stood by while I was often consumed by the pursuit of this accomplishment. You have waited
patiently for “your turn” and my full presence. You have never questioned my pursuit of this goal even when the process
made little sense and the sacrifices were great. I thank you for your patience, grace and love. I know I truly could not have
made it without you.
Parental Aggression and Peer Relationships 3
Abstract
Although child maltreatment studies have demonstrated a link between parental
aggression and peer relationship functioning in children, few studies have investigated this
relationship in adolescents. The current investigation was approached with two main goals. The
first goal of this study was to investigate the relationship between parental aggression and
adolescent peer relationship intimacy and social skill competence. The second goal was to
investigate trust, self-efficacy and attitudes about aggression as potential mediators in the
relationship between parental aggression and peer relationship functioning. This study used
adolescent reports of their parents’ verbal and physical aggression to predict peer reports of the
target adolescent’s peer relationship intimacy and social skill competence. This study examined
data for 121 adolescents ages 10-14 at Time 1 and 16-22 at Time 2. Mothers’ verbal
aggression predicted lower peer relationship intimacy in mid-adolescence and late adolescence
and also predicted lower social skill competence in late adolescence. Fathers’ physical
aggression predicted lower peer relationship intimacy in late adolescence. Trust, self-efficacy
and attitudes about aggression were not found to mediate the relationship between parental
aggression and peer relationship quality. Future research regarding the relationship between
parental aggression and peer relationships should include investigation of the context within
which parental aggression occurs.
Parental Aggression and Peer Relationships 4
Parental Aggression and Adolescent Peer Relationships
Adolescence is marked by an increased orientation toward peers, with the task of this
stage focused on the development of supportive relationships marked by intimacy, loyalty and
trustworthiness (Berndt, et al., 1986; Buhrmester & Furman, 1987; Hartup, 1983; Youniss &
Smollar, 1985). Peer relationship quality at all ages has been found to be associated with both
current and future adjustment outcomes (Garmezy & Streitman, 1974; Cowen, Pederson,
Babigian, Izzo and Trost, 1973), and there is evidence to suggest that child and adolescent peer
relationships may provide contributions to social and emotional development that is different
from that provided by parents (Price, 1996). Although recognized as an important aspect of
development, little is known about the influence of parenting practices on child and adolescent
peer relationships. The focus on the development of supportive relationships in adolescence
makes this stage particularly salient in the investigation of the relationship between parenting and
peer relationship quality.
One potential major influence on social competence with peers is parental aggression.
Understanding the specific areas of social competence associated with parental aggression and
the process by which parental aggression may influence social functioning, advances our
understanding of social development through the exploration of the potential negative
consequences of parental aggression. In addition, this area of research informs clinical practice
with regard to intervention strategies for children with poor peer relations who have experienced
aggression from a parent. The theoretical and clinical ramifications of understanding the process
by which parental aggression influences peer relationships are extensive both in informing theory
and clinical practice. Empirical research in the child maltreatment literature has provided the
Parental Aggression and Peer Relationships 5
most extensive investigation of the relationship between parental aggression and peer
relationship development. Studies of maltreated children have investigated their peer
relationships in an effort to describe the influence of parental aggression at the extreme negative
end of the continuum of parenting. Understanding differences between maltreated and non-
maltreated children’s peer relationships, provides information regarding the influence parental
aggression may have on social functioning, as well as offering clues regarding potential mediating
factors present in the relationship between parent-child interactions and children’s peer
relationships (Cicchetti, 1984). This “experiment in nature” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) enables
researchers to investigate the impact of severe family relationship circumstances on peer
relationships in order to inform theories of socioemotional development.
To date, there are few studies investigating the impact of parental aggression on
adolescent peer relationships. A review of the literature on maltreated children’s peer
relationships provides information regarding the specific areas of social dysfunction associated
with parental aggression that may also be important in investigating adolescent peer
relationships. However, research on child maltreatment has historically been wrought with
methodological problems and constraints. One problem is the use of parent report measures
regarding maltreated children. Studies have indicated that abusive and neglectful parents have
unrealistic expectations and distorted perceptions of child behavior (Azar, Robinson, Hekimian
& Twentyman, 1984; Bauer & Twentyman, 1985; Rosenberg & Reppucci, 1983). Another
consideration in this area of research is the co-occurrence of risk factors in maltreating families,
such as lower socioeconomic status. When comparing maltreated and non-maltreated children,
it is important to control for additional risk factors and demographic variables in order to
Parental Aggression and Peer Relationships 6
increase the likelihood of finding differences related to maltreatment. Keeping these
methodological issues in mind, the following review of research on maltreatment outcomes
includes studies designed with well-matched samples of maltreated and non-maltreated children
as well as those using measures of child behavior other than parent report. Understanding the
impact of parental aggression on maltreated children’s peer relationships provides the basic
foundation for investigating the impact of parental aggression in adolescent peer relationships.
Child Maltreatment and Peer Relationships
Observational Studies
Studies using systematic observational coding systems have examined young maltreated
children’s peer relationships and have found physically abused children to exhibit more
disturbed peer relationships and interactions than non-maltreated children (Cicchetti, Lynch,
Shonk, Manly, 1992; Conaway & Hansen, 1989; Mueller & Silverman, 1989 for reviews). The
main findings reveal maltreated toddlers and preschoolers to be more aggressive (Fagot, Hagan,
Youngblade & Potter, 1989; George & Main, 1979; Haskett & Kistner, 1991; Herrenkohl &
Herrenkohl, 1981; Hoffman-Plotkin & Twentyman, 1984) more withdrawn and avoidant
(Fagot, et. al., 1989; George & Main, 1979; Hoffman-Plotkin & Twentyman, 1984; Jacobson
& Straker, 1982) and less prosocial and competent (Alessandri, 1991; Fagot, et. al., 1989;
Hoffman-Plotkin & Twentyman, 1984; Howes & Espinosa, 1985; Lewis & Schaeffer, 1981) in
their interactions with peers than non-maltreated children.
In addition to the methodological strength of examining actual behavior, observational
studies of maltreated children have the benefit of allowing for fine-grained analyses of specific
responses of maltreated children to specific behaviors of their peers. Physically abused children
Parental Aggression and Peer Relationships 7
have been found to have higher negative reactions and lower positive reactions to behaviors in
general (Fagot, et. al., 1989) and have been found to display higher levels of aggressive
responses to peer aggression, peer distress and friendly overtures by peers. Physically abused
and neglected toddler and preschool age children have been found to respond to aggression
from other children with higher levels of aggressive behavior compared to non-maltreated
children (Fagot, et. al., 1989; Howes & Eldredge, 1985). Maltreated toddler and preschool
age children have also been found to demonstrate aggressive and withdrawn behavior in
response to peer distress, while their non-maltreated counterparts were noted to exhibit
prosocial responses to peer distress (George & Main, 1979; Howes & Eldredge, 1985;
Klimes-Dougan & Kistner, 1990).
Taken together, these descriptive studies of maltreated toddler and preschool children’s
peer relationships indicate that young children who have experienced physical maltreatment
demonstrate significant maladaptive interactions with and responses to the negative, neutral and
affiliative behaviors of their peers. These interaction patterns of maltreated children suggest
initial difficulties with basic social skills that are likely to leave them vulnerable to less intimate
and less supportive relationships with peers. Maladaptive responses to peers of maltreated
children put them at risk for peer rejection. The basic aggressive response of maltreated
children to their peers, especially in response to affiliative and friendly overtures, leaves these
children vulnerable to less closeness in their peer relationships. Although the above mentioned
studies do not examine the quality of peer relationships of physically abused and harshly
disciplined children, these observational studies indicate that children receiving parental
Parental Aggression and Peer Relationships 8
aggression are at risk for difficulty in establishing close relationships with peers.
Teacher Report Studies
Studies investigating adult observations of maltreated children’s peer relationships
suggest that maltreated children differ from non-maltreated children in their social competence.
Cicchetti, Lynch, Shonk & Manly (1992) report findings from several of their studies in which
they found camp counselor and teacher ratings of social competence to differentiate between
maltreated children and non-maltreated children between the ages 5-12. Maltreated children
were found to demonstrate poorer peer relations measured by camp counselor and teacher
ratings of social competence using a Q-sort procedure. Maltreated children, which included
physical abuse for 39% of the sample, matched with non-maltreated children on race,
education, socioeconomic status, and household composition demonstrated lower self esteem,
lower prosocial ratings and higher withdrawn scores than non-maltreated children as assessed
by camp counselors blind to maltreatment status (Kaufman & Cicchetti, 1989). The authors
suggest that maltreated children’s impaired self-esteem may lead to difficulties with initiating
relationships with peers. These findings suggest that adults working closely with children
experiencing parental aggression view their interactions with peers as maladaptive compared to
non-maltreated children. This maladaptive social interaction has negative implications for the
establishment of close, supportive, intimate peer relationships.
Peer Report Studies
Cicchetti, et. al., (1992) suggest that peers may be able to identify qualities about their
interactions with maltreated children that are unique from those provided by adult ratings.
Research based on peer sociometric ratings and peer ratings of behavior, find maltreated
Parental Aggression and Peer Relationships 9
children to be rated less favorably than non-maltreated children in a variety of areas. Studies
using peer sociometric ratings have found physically abused children to be rated less favorably
than nonabused children with whom they have been individually matched on gender, age and
race (Haskett & Kistner, 1991; Kaufman & Cicchetti, 1989; Manly & Cicchetti, 1989;
Salzinger, Feldman, Hammer & Rosario, 1993). When reciprocal nominations were used as a
measure of friendship or social support, maltreated children received less positive nominations
and more negative nominations from those they nominated as best friends (Salzinger, et. al,
1993). This suggests that maltreated children’s perceptions of their relationships with other
children may be somewhat distorted. Peer sociometric rating studies suggest that physically
abused children are vulnerable to peer rejection, lower support and other negative outcomes
resulting from the unfulfilled expectations associated with their inaccurate perceptions of others
as best friends.
Peer ratings of maltreated children’s behavior are found to be less positive than ratings
of non-maltreated children. Peers rate maltreated children as less likely to be leaders and more
likely to start fights (as reported in Cicchetti, et. al., 1992; Salzinger, et al., 1993) suggesting
deficits in assertiveness as well as control of aggression. Physically abused children were also
rated lower on sharing and higher on meanness and attention seeking (Salzinger, et al, 1993).
These studies suggest that physically abused children are not only perceived by their peers with
an increased propensity toward aggression, but also as demonstrating more negative intentions.
Additionally, these studies suggest that peers perceive physically abused children as less likely
to exhibit prosocial behavior. Similar to teachers and researchers, physically abused children’s
peers view them more negatively and less positively than they view non-abused children.
Parental Aggression and Peer Relationships 10
The child maltreatment literature suggests that maltreated children demonstrate poorer
social skills. Specifically, these children are perceived as more aggressive and less prosocial by
researchers, teachers and their own peers. Deficits in maltreated children’s prosocial behaviors
and maladaptive responses to peer affiliative overtures, likely result in lower positive interactions
with peers. This literature as a whole suggests that maltreated children are at risk for more
conflictual, less intimate, and less socially supportive peer relationships.
Studies examining parental aggression that does not reach the level of abuse have found
similar findings to the child maltreatment research. An observational study found children
receiving harsh punishment to exhibit aggressive behavior toward peers. After controlling for
socioeconomic status, Strassburg, Dodge, Pettit & Bates (1994) found parental use of physical
punishment of kindergarten children, assessed by a modified version of the Conflict Tactics
Scale, to be positively correlated with observations of children’s subsequent aggressive
behavior toward peers. Peers rated children receiving harsh punishment as aggressive twice as
often as they did control children (Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 1990).
Mediating factors in the relationship between parental aggression and peer relationships
Although the presence of an association between parental aggression and peer
relationship difficulties in maltreated children has been well documented and described, few
studies actually examine mediating models of this relationship. Theories of socio-emotional
development provide suggestions for mediating factors of the relationship between parental
aggression and maladaptive social behavior. Attachment theory and cognitive social learning
theories suggest possible mediating influences of parental aggression and suggest similar areas of
investigation in this relationship. The behaviors of children experiencing parental aggression also
Description:Alison Kay Walker Schlatter. Charlottesville, Virginia. B.A. University of Hawaii,
1992. M.A. University of Virginia, 1996. A Dissertation presented to the Graduate
