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GENERAL HISTORY OF AFRICA II
Ancient Civilizations of Africa
UNESCO General History of Africa
Volume I Methodology and African Prehistory
(Editor J. Ki-Zerbo)
Volume II Ancient Civilizations of Africa
(Editor G. Mokhtar)
Volume III Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century
(Editor M. El Fasi)
(Assistant Editor I. Hrbek)
Volume IV Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century
(Editor D.T.Niane)
Volume V Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century
(Editor B. A. Ogot)
Volume VI Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s
(Editor J. F. A. Ajayi)
Volume VII Africa under Colonial Domination, 1880-1935
(Editor A. A. Boahen)
Volume VIII Africa since 1935
(Editor A. A. Mazrui)
(Assistant Editor C. Wondji)
UNESCO International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa
GENERAL HISTORY
OF AFRICA-II
Ancient Civilizations
of Africa
EDITOR G.MOKHTAR
HEINEMANN- CALIFORNIA- UNESCO
First published 1981 by the
United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization,
7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris
and
Heinemann Educational Books Ltd
22 Bedford Square, London WCiB 3HH
Reprinted in 1992 and 1995 by
Heinemann Educational Publishers
A Division of Heinemann Publishers (Oxford) Ltd
Halley Court, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8EJ
Reprinted in 2000 by UNESCO Publishing
1 rue Miollis, 75732 PARIS Cedex 15, France
PMB 5205, Ibadan
PO Box 10103, Village Post Office, Gaborone
FLORENCE PRAGUE PARIS MADRID
ATHENS MELBOURNE JOHANNESBURG
AUCKLAND SINGAPORE TOKYO
CHICAGO SAO PAULO
First published 1981
in the United States of America by the
University of California Press
2223 Fulton Street, Berkeley
California 94720, United States of America
© UNESCO 1981
Heinemann Publishers ISBN o 435 94805 9 (cased)
ISBN o 435 94806 7 (paper)
UNESCO ISBN 92-3-101-708-X
University of California Press ISBN 0-520-03913-0
LCN 78-57321
Filmset in 1 ipt Monophoto Ehrhardt by
Northumberland Press Ltd, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear
Contents
List of figures ix
List of plates xi
Acknowledgements for plates xv
Note on chronology xvii
Introduction i
G. M O K H T AR with the collaboration of J. Vercoutter
i Origin of the ancient Egyptians 27
CHEIKH ANTA DIOP
Annex to Chapter 1: Report of the symposium on 'The Peopling of
Ancient Egypt and the Deciphering of the Meroitic Script' 58
2 Pharaonic Egypt 84
A. ABU BAKR
3 Pharaonic Egypt: society, economy and culture 112
J. YOYOTTE
4 Egypt's relations with the rest of Africa 136
A. H. ZAYED with the collaboration of J. Dévisse
5 The legacy of Pharaonic Egypt 155
R. EL-NADOURY with the collaboration of J. Vercoutter
6 Egypt in the hellenistic era 184
H. RIAD with the collaboration of J. Dévisse
7 Egypt under Roman domination 208
S. DONADONI
8 The importance of Nubia: a link between Central Africa and the
Mediterranean 226
S. A D AM with the collaboration of J. Vercoutter
9 Nubia before Napata ( — 3100 to — 750) 245
N. M. SHERIF
v
Contents
io The empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe 278
J. LECLANT
11 The civilization of Napata and Meroe 298
A. A. H A K EM with the collaboration of I. Hrbek and J. Vercoutter
12 The spreading of Christianity in Nubia 326
K. MICHALOWSKI
13 Pre-Aksumite culture 341
H. DE CONTENSON
14 The civilization of Aksum from the first to the seventh century 362
F. ANFRAY
15 Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth
century 381
' Y. M. KOBISHANOV
16 Christian Aksum 401
T. T. MEKOURIA
17 The proto-Berbers 423
J. DESANGES
18 The Carthaginian period 441
B. H. WARMINGTON
19 The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa 465
A. MAHJOUBI and P. SALAMA
20 The Sahara in classical antiquity 513
P. SALAMA
21 Introduction to the later prehistory of sub-Saharan Africa 533
M. POSNANSKY
22 The East African coast and its role in maritime trade 551
A. M. H. SHERIFF
23 East Africa before the seventh century 568
J. E. G. SUTTON
vi
Contents
24 West Africa before the seventh century 593
B. WAI ANDAH
25 Central Africa 620
F. VAN N O T EN with the collaboration o/D. Cahen and P. de Maret
26 Southern Africa: hunters and food-gatherers 639
J. E. PARKINGTON
27 The beginnings of the iron age in southern Africa 671
D. W. PHILLIPSON
28 Madagascar 693
P. VÉRIN
29 The societies of Africa south of the Sahara in the
early iron age 718
M. POSNANSKY
Conclusion 732
G. MOKHTAR
Members of the International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a
General History of Africa 738
Biographies of Authors 740
Bibliography 742
Indexes 786
vii
List of figures
Introduction Seasonal flooding of the Nile 24
2.1 The Nile from the Third Cataract to the Mediterranean 83
2.2 Chronology of Egyptian history S6-7
4.1 The Horn of Africa and neighbouring areas in antiquity 146
6.1 Map of the world according to Hecataeus 795
6.2 Map of the world according to Herodotus ig6
8.1 The Nile Valley and the Nubian 'Corridor' 227
8.2 Ancient Nubia 228
8.3 Upper Sudanese Nubia 22g
9.1 Nubia and Egypt 244
9.2 Types of A-group pottery 246
9.3 Types of A-group burials 247
9.4 The inscription of King Djer at Jebel Sheikh Suliman 24g
9.5 Typical C-group graves 253
9.6 Types of C-group pottery 254
9.7 Nubia, 1580 before our era 257
9.8 Types of Kerma pottery 262
9.9 Kerma burial 263
9.10 Nubia during the New Kingdom 264
9.11 (a) Type of New Kingdom burial 272
9.11 (b) Type of New Kingdom burial 272
10.1 Meroitic sites 2jg
10.2 Saqia 288
12.1 The Nile from the First Cataract to the Sixth Cataract 327
12.2 Plans of Faras I 328
12.3 Plans of Faras II 330
13.1 Ethiopia in the intermediary pre-Aksumite period 342
13.2 Ethiopia in the south Arabian period 344
15.1 Map showing Aksum's expansion 382
19.1 Roman provinces in North Africa at the end of the second century of our
era 467
19.2 Roman provinces in North Africa in the fourth century of our era 473
19.3 The Byzantine episode in North Africa showing military constructions,
fortresses, towns 504-5
20.1 The Sahara in classical antiquity 514
21.1 Hypotheses concerning the origin of the Bantu and the beginning of iron
working 535
21.2 Copper sources and caravan routes across the Sahara 544
23.1 East African language groupings and relationships 56g
23.2 East Africa: Political map and map showing the distribution of languages
and peoples 570
24.1 West Africa: important prehistoric sites 5Q4
24.2 The Sahara emphasizing the topographic highlands sgs
24.3 The Tilemsi valley complex 600
ix
List of figures
24.4 The Tichitt region 601
24.5 Settlement mounds of the Firki 603
25.1 Map of Central Africa showing places mentioned in the text 621
25.2 Uelian polished axe (hematite) 623
25.3 Objects found at the Batalimo site, south of Bangui (Central African
Republic) 624
25.4 Map of Central Africa showing areas of 'Neolithic' and 'early iron age'
occupation 625
25.5 Objects found at Sanga 626-7
26.1 Rock painting: women with weighted digging-sticks 646
26.2 A group of men with bows, arrows and quivers 64/
26.3 Fishing scene from Tsoelike, Lesotho 649
26.4 Rock painting showing a group of hunters in their cave 652
26.5 Rock painting showing a large group of figures 656
26.6 Conflict scene 657
26.7 Map of southern Africa showing late stone age sites 659
26.8 The earliest dates available for the appearance of pottery and domestic stock
in later stone age contexts in southern Africa 660
26.9 A herd of bat-tailed sheep 662
26.10 A galleon painted in the mountains of the Western Cape 666
26.11 Wagons, horses and trekkers 668
26.12 A group of small stock raiders armed with bows and arrows 669
27.1 Southern Africa: location of early iron age and related sites mentioned in
the text 672
27.2 Southern Africa: sites 673
27.3 Early iron age pottery from Twickenham Road 685
27.4 Pottery from Mabveni 687
28.1 Madagascar showing important sites 694
28.2 Madagascar showing places mentioned in the text 695
28.3 Double-valved bellows of the type found in Indonesia 696
28.4 Fish-hooks from Talaky (twelfth century) 712
28.5 Ceramics from Kingany and Rasoky (fifteenth century) 712
x