Table Of ContentCHEMISTRY RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS
O E F
XIDE LECTRONICS AND UNCTIONAL
P T
ROPERTIES OF RANSITION
METAL OXIDES
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C R A
HEMISTRY ESEARCH AND PPLICATIONS
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CHEMISTRY RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS
O E F
XIDE LECTRONICS AND UNCTIONAL
P T
ROPERTIES OF RANSITION
METAL OXIDES
ALEXANDER PERGAMENT
EDITOR
New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Oxide electronics and functional properties of transition metal oxides / editor, Alexander
Pergament (Petrozavodsk State University, Russia).
pages cm. -- (Chemistry research and applications)
Includes index.
ISBN: (cid:28)(cid:26)(cid:27)(cid:16)(cid:20)(cid:16)(cid:25)(cid:22)(cid:22)(cid:21)(cid:20)(cid:16)(cid:24)(cid:22)(cid:23)(cid:16)(cid:23) (eBook)
1. Transition metal oxides. 2. Oxides--Electric properties. I. Pergament, Alexander, editor.
QD172.T6O95 2014
621.381--dc23
2014026239
Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York
CONTENTS
Oxide Electronics: An Introduction vii
Alexander Pergament
Chapter 1 Unipolar Resistive Switching Effect 1
Tatiana V. Kundozerova and Genrickh B. Stefanovich
Chapter 2 Some Fundamental Points of Technology of Lithium Niobate
and Lithium Tantalate Single Crystals 31
M. N. Palatnikov and N. V. Sidorov
Chapter 3 Sputter Deposited Nanolaminates Containing Group IVB
(Ti, Zr, Hf)-Oxides: Phase Structure and Near Band Gap
Optical Absorption Behavior 169
Carolyn Rubin Aita
Chapter 4 Optical and Electrical Switching of Thermochromic
VO Smart Coatings 211
2
Mohammed Soltani
Editor Contact Information 231
Index 233
OXIDE ELECTRONICS: AN INTRODUCTION
Alexander Pergament1
Petrozavodsk State University, Petrozavodsk, Russia
ABSTRACT
MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors) have for a long
time been the workhorse of modern electronics industry. For the purpose of a permanent
integration enhancement, the size of a MOSFET has been decreasing exponentially for
over decades in compliance with the Moore‘s Law, but nowadays, owing to the intrinsic
restrictions, the further scaling of MOSFET devices either encounters fundamental (e.g.
quantum-mechanical) limits or demands for more and more sophisticated and expensive
engineering solutions. Alternative approaches and device concepts are currently designed
both in order to sustain an increase of the integration degree, and to improve the
functionality and performance of electronic devices. Oxide electronics is one of such
promising approaches which could enable and accelerate the development of information
and computing technology. The behavior of d-electrons in transition metal oxides
(TMOs) is responsible for the unique properties of these materials, causing strong
electron-electron correlations, which play an important role in the mechanism of metal-
insulator transition. The Mott transition in vanadium dioxide is specifically the effect that
researchers consider as one of the most promising phenomena for oxide electronics,
particularly, in its special direction known as a Mott-transition field-effect transistor
(MTFET). Therefore, VO -based MTFET is one of the fields of oxide electronics. Also,
2
oxide ReRAM is another rapidly growing field of oxide electronics. Finally, many other
functional properties of TMOs, including, for example, optical and electrical switching of
thermochromic VO smart coatings, optical properties (especially Raman spectra) of
2
single crystalline lithium niobate and tantalate (LiNbO and LiTaO ), as well as optical
3 3
properties (near band gap optical absorption) of TMO-based nanolaminates, like e.g.
ZrO -Al O , HfO -Al O , TiO -Al O , ZrO -TiO , and HfO -TiO , are extremely
2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 2
important to understand and estimate potential ability of different TMOs and TMO-based
structures in diverse fields of oxide electronics.
Keywords: Oxide electronics, Transition metal oxides, Oxide ReRAM, Lithium Niobate and
Tantalate, Vanadium dioxide, Oxide nanolaminates
1 E-mail: [email protected].
viii Alexander Pergament
The term ―oxide electronics‖ have emerged not so long ago in the everyday-life of
scientific literature, but already firmly taken its place. The point is that the modern IT
revolution is based on technological progress which enables an exponentially growing
enhancement of the performance of electronic devices. During all the history of the
development of electronic components, from a vacuum diode to modern highly integrated ICs
with nanometer scale of individual elements, the question of the physical limitations on the
further progress in this area arose repeatedly. After the invention of an IC by J. Kilby and R.
Noyce in 1958 [1], the number of transistors on a chip roughly doubles every two years, and
afterwards the processing speed and storage capacity increase correspondingly (Moore‘s
Law). Such a dynamics is typical of all other key parameters of the ICs, the most important of
which is a characteristic size of the active region d [2], for example, the FET effective
m
channel length. In recent years, the issue of constraints for standard Si-based electronics has
been widely discussed in the scientific literature, which is primarily associated with the
possibility of further scaling toward nano-size. In this regard, in the 2007 edition of The
International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS, http://www.itrs.net), a new
section has appeared, namely ―Emergent Research Device Materials‖, which indicates the
need to develop a new generation of devices based on new physical principles [3].
Dimensional constraints of the conventional CMOS technology will not allow,
apparently, overcoming the limit of d far beyond 10 nm, and this can be called as a
m
―Moore‘s Law violation‖ [4] (or, so to say, ―More than Moore‖, – the pun which seems to
originate from the ITRS authors). Note, however, that the ITRS program still optimistically
claims that a theoretical limit of scaling for Si is not seen, and by 2026 it is planned to achieve
the level of d = 6 nm (and according to the Intel‘s road map – 10 nm by 2015, the so called
m
―P1274 process‖ [5]). Recently, a laboratory prototype of a SOI-based FET with a 3 nm
channel length has been reported [6]. Last years, technologies with characteristic topological
dimensions of 45, 22 and 10 nm are being actively developed, and the main directions here
are as follows: high-k gate dielectrics, multigate structures, the use of such materials as Ge,
A3B5 and graphene, Si-Ge alloys in the source and drain regions and strained silicon, and
finally, «tri-gate» FET configuration [5] (some of these directions have also been presented in
the recent review «Technology Evolution for Silicon Nanoelectronics: Postscaling
Technology» [7]). Simultaneously, new technical solutions for architecture optimization
(such as, e.g., multi-core processors and the Blue Gene project), system integration and
innovative design are developed (see, e.g., a corresponding discussion in the review [4]).
Alternative approaches are based on another mechanism (as compared to the field effect
in Si CMOS FETs) or even on a drastic change in computational paradigm or architecture
(quantum computers, neuroprocessors). Amongst the approaches utilizing new physical
mechanisms, one can list, for example, spintronics, superconducting electronics, single-
electronics, molecular electronics, as well as one more quite recent direction, so-called
―soletronics‖ (single atom electronics) [8]. One of such novel directions, oxide electronics, is
based on the idea of application of unique properties and physical phenomena in strongly
correlated transition metal oxides (TMO). Metal-insulator transition (MIT) [9] belongs to the
class of the aforementioned phenomena, and many TMOs, e.g. vanadium dioxide, undergo
MITs as functions of temperature or electric field [4, 9, 10].
Complex strongly correlated TMOs, such as HTSC cuprates, CMR manganites or some
interfaces (such as, for instance, LaAlO /SrTiO ), had first been considered as candidate
3 3
materials for oxide electronics [3], and the list of devices proposed had included, for example,
