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UNIVERSITY PRESS
Preface
OXFORD
UNIVERSITYPRESS Thisdictionaryhas beenwrittenbyadistinguishedteamofacademic
GreatClarendonStreet,Oxfordoxasm- and practising lawyers. It is intended primarilyfor those without a
OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. qualificationin law who nevertheless require some legallmowledge
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Each article, therefore, begins with a clear definition ofthe entry
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intheUKandincertainothercountries
explanationor descriptionoftheconceptsinvolved.
©MarketHouseBooksLtd
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Firstpublished1983asAConciseDictionaryoflaw
escapethe effects oflegislationor theunique prose style in whichit
Secondedition1990
Thirdedition1994 isusuallyexpressed.
Reissuedinnewcoverswithcorrections1996 In the five years since the last edition of the dictionary was
Fourthedition1997 published there have been radical changes in the English legal
Fifthedition2002
Reissuedwithnewcovers2003 system, most notablyin the areas ofcivil procedure (resultingfrom
theAccesstoJusticeAct 1999 andthe CivilProcedureRules - theso
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispubiicationmaybereproduced,
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dictionary's longerarticles.The use ofthe pronoun'he' (ratherthan
Dataavailable
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sentences;itdoes notimplythatthesubjectmatterrelatesexclusively
6
to males.
TypesetinSwiftbyMarketHouseBooksLtd,
PrintedinGreatBritainby
ClaysLtd,StIvespic E.A.M.
2001
Editor Contents
ElizabethA.MartinMA(axon) Dictionary 1
UsefulAddresses 545
DirectoratesGeneraloftheEuropeanCommission 551
Contributorsforthe Fifth Edition
OwainBlackwellBA,LLM(Nottm) SeniorLecturerinLaw,Buckinghamshire
ChilternsUniversityCollege
SandraClarkeMA(axon) Barrister;SeniorLecturerinLaw,Universityof
Greenwich
KimEverettLLB SeniorLecturerinLaw,UniversityofGreenwich
MartinFitzgeraldMSc(SocialResearch), LLB,PGCE Solicitor;PrincipalLecturer
inLaw,UniversityofGreenwich
M.GaborakLLM SeniorLecturerinlaw, UniversityofGreenwich
SarahGreerMA(Cantab],ACA SeniorLecturerinLaw,UniversityofGreenwich
JohnHarderBSc,LLB,DPhil SeniorLecturerinLaw,UniversityofGreenwich
P.D.M.JacksonBSc Barrister;LecturerinLaw,UniversityofGreenwich
EdwardPhillipsLLB(Mal),BCL(axon) PrincipalLecturerinLaw,University
ofGreenwich
GaryShieldsBSc,ACI!,LLM,CertEd PrincipalLecturerinLaw,University
ofGreenwich
NicholasJ.SimpsonBA(axon) Solicitor
E.SusanSingletonLLB Solicitor
JohnWadhamBSc(London),MSc(Surrey) Solicitor;DirectorofLiberty
MargaretWhybrowLLB Barrister,SeniorLecturerinLaw,UniversityofGreenwich
Contributorsforthe First Edition
MartinR.Banham-HallLLB Solicitor
BernardBerkovitsLLB LecturerinLaw,UniversityofBuckingham
P.J. ClarkeBCL,MA Barrister;FellowandTutorinLaw,JesusCollege,Oxford
Letitia Crabb LLB(Wales),LLM(London) Solicitor;LecturerinLaw,University
CollegeofWales,Aberystwyth
J.W.DaviesLLB,MA,BCL FellowofBrasenoseCollege,Oxford
B.Russell DavisMA,LLB Barrister
J.D.FelthamBA(Melb.),MA(axon) FellowofMagdalenCollege,Oxford
JudithLewisLLB Solicitor
KeithUffMA,BCL(axon) LecturerinLaw,UniversityofBirmingham
A
abandonmentn. 1. Theact of givingup alegal right,particularlyarightof
ownershipof property.Propertythathas beenabandonedisresnullius(athing
belongingto no one),andapersontakingpossessionof it thereforeacquiresa
lawfultitle.Anitemisregardedasabandonedwhenit can be establishedthat the
originalownerhas discardedit and isindifferentasto whatbecomesof it:suchan
itemcannot bethesubjectof atheftcharge.However,propertyplaced byits owner
in adustbinisnotabandoned,havingbeenplacedtherefor thepurposeof being
collectedasrefuse.In marineinsurance,abandonmentisthesurrenderof all rights
toaship or cargoin acaseof *constructivetotalloss.The insuredpersonmustdo
thisbygivingtheinsurerwithinareasonabletimeanoticeofabandonment,by
whichhe relinquishesallhis rights to theship or cargoto theinsurerandcan treat
thelossasif it werean actualtotalloss. 2. In civillitigation,therelinquishingof
thewholeor partof theclaimmade in an actionor of an appeal. Anyclaimisnow
consideredto beabandonedonce a *noticeofdiscontinuanceisserved, accordingto
rule38(1)of the *CivilProcedureRules. 3. Theoffenceof aparentor guardian
leavingachild undertheage of16to its fate. Achildisnot regardedasabandoned
if theparentknowsand approvessteps someoneelseistakingto look afterit.The
courtmay allow achild to beadoptedwithout theconsentof its parentsif theyare
guiltyof abandonment.
abatementn. 1. (ofdebts) The proportionatereductionin thepaymentofdebts
thattakesplace if aperson'sassets are insufficientto settlewithhis creditorsin
full. 2. (oflegacies)The reductionor cancellationof legacies whentheestateis
insufficientto cover all thelegacies providedfor in thewill or on intestacyafter
paymentof thedeceased'sdebts. TheAdministrationof EstatesAct1925provides
thatgenerallegacies,unlessgivento satisfyadebt or for otherconsideration,abate
in proportionto theamounts of thoselegacies; specificand demonstrativelegacies
thenabateif the estateisstillinsufficientto payall debts,and ademonstrative
legacy alsoabatesif thespecifiedfundisinsufficientto cover it. Forexample,A's
estatemaycompriseapainting,£300in his savings account,and£700in other
money; therearedebts of £100buthiswill leaves thepaintingto B,£500from the
savings account to C.£800to D,and £200to E.Bwill receivethepainting,C's
demonstrativelegacy abates to £300,andafterthedebtsare paid from the
remaining£700,D'sand E'sgenerallegacies abateproportionately,to £480and £120
respectively.Whenannuitiesare givenbythewill, thegeneralruleisthattheyare
valuedat thedateof thetestator'sdeath,thenabateproportionatelyin accordance
withthatvaluation,and each annuitant receives theabatedsum. Alltheserulesare
subjectto any contraryintentionbeingexpressedin thewill. 3. (inland law)Any
reductionor cancellationof moneypayable. Forexamplealeasemayprovideforan
abatementof rentin certaincircumstances,e.g.if thebuildingisdestroyedbyfire,
and apurchaserof landmayclaim an abatementof thepriceif theseller can prove
his ownershipof only partof thelandhe contractedto sell. 4. (ofnuisances)The
termination,removal,or destructionofa *nuisance.Apersoninjuredbyanuisance
has arightto abateit. In doingso,he mustnotdomoredamagethanisnecessary
and,if removalof thenuisance requires entryon to thepropertyfromwhichit
emanates,he mayhave to give noticeto thewrongdoer.Alocalauthoritycan issue
an abatementnoticeto controlstatutorynuisances. 5. (ofproceedings)The
abduction 2 3 abstractoftitle
terminationof civilproceedings byoperationof law,causedbyachangeof interest accuratenewspaperor broadcastreportof judicialproceedings,or in an official
or status(e.g.bankruptcyor death) of one of the partiesafterthestart butbefore communicationbetweencertainofficersofstate.Under theDefamationAct1996,
the completionof theproceedings.Anabatementdidnotpreventeitherof the the defenceisalsoavailablefor thosereportingproceedingsof theEuropeanCourt
partiesfrombringingfreshproceedingsin respectof thesame cause of action. Pleas ofJustice.Undercertaincircumstancesdefinedby the1996Actthe absol~te
inabatementhave been abolished; in modernpracticeany changeof interestor privilegeaccordedto statementsor proceedingsin Parli~mentm~ybewaived .
statusof the partiesdoesnot affectthevalidityof theproceedings,providedthat (waiverof privilege)to permitevidence to beadducedIIIan actionfor defamation.
the cause ofactionsurvives. CompareQUALIFIED PRNILEGE.
abductionn. Theoffenceof takingan unmarriedgirlunder the ageof16from absoluteright Arightset outin theEuropeanConventionon HumanRights that
thepossession ofherparentsor guardiansagainsttheirwill.It isno defencethat cannotbe interferedwithlawfully,no matterhowimportantthe publicinterestin
the girllooked and acted asifshe wasover 16or thatshewasawillingparty.No doingsomightbe.Absolute rightsinclude *freedomof thought,conscience,and
sexualmotivehas to beproved. It isalsoan offenceto abductan unmarriedgirl religionand the prohibitionson *torture, *inhumantreatmentor punishment,and
undertheageof18or amentallydefectivewoman(marriedor unmarried)for the *degradingtreatmentor punishment.CompareQUALIFIED RIGHT.
purposeof unlawfulsexual intercourse.In this caseadefendantcan plead thathe
had reasonablegroundsfor believingthat the girl was over 18,or thathe didnot absolutetitle Ownershipofa *legal estatein registeredland withaguaranteeby
knowthewomanwasmentallydefective,respectively.Itisalsoan offenceto abduct the statethatno one has abetterrightto thatestate.An absolute titleto freehold
any womanwiththeintentionthatshe shouldmarryor have unlawfulsexual land isequivalenttoan estateinfee simplein possessionin unregisteredland.
intercoursewithsomeone, if it isdone byforce or for thesake of herproperty.It is Absoluteleaseholdtitle,unlike *goodleaseholdtitle,guaranteesthat the lessor
alsoan offenceforaparentor guardianof achild under16to takeor send himout hastitleto grant the lease.(ComparePOSSESSORYTITLE;QUALIFIEDTITLE.)Thetitlemay
of theUKwithoutthe consentof the otherparentor guardians.Beliefthatthe besubjectto (1) *encumbrancesand otherentriesnotedon theregisterbymeansof
otherpersonhas or wouldhave consentedisadefence. Itisalsoan offencefor any substantiveregistration(e.g.aregisteredlegal chargeor landcharge);(2)minor
otherpersonto removeor keep such achild,withoutlawfulauthorityor reasonable interests,such asthatof abeneficiaryunderatrust,whichmay beprotectedby
excuse,from the personwithlawfulcontrolof him. Proofof beliefthat the child means of "entry"on theregisterratherthanbysubstantiveregistration;and (3)
was16isadefencehere. See alsoKIDNAPPING. *overridinginterests(which bytheirnaturedonotappearontheregisterand must
beascertainedbysearchand enquiry). SeealsoLANDREGISTRATION.
abet vb. SeeAIDAND ABET.
abstractingelectricity The *arrestableoffence,punishablewithup to five years'
abortionn. Theterminationof apregnancy:amiscarriageor thepremature imprisonmentand/orafine, of dishonestlyusing, wasting,or divertingelectricity.
expulsionofafoetus from thewombbeforethe normalperiodof gestationis
Thisoffencemay becommittedbysomeonewho bypasses his electricitymeteror
complete.Itisan offenceto induceor attempt toinducean abortionunless the reconnectsadisconnectedmeteror who unlawfullyobtainsafree telephonecall
terms of theAbortionAct1967and the AbortionRegulations1991are compliedwith.
(thoughthereisamorespecificand potentiallylessseriousoffencetodealwith
The pregnancycanonly beterminatedbyaregisteredmedicalpractitioner,and two
this).Bypassingagasor watermetercould constitute *theftof the gasor water.
registeredmedical practitionersmustagree thatit isnecessary, for examplebecause
Joyridinginalift(orsome similarabuse)mightalsoconstitutewastingelectricity.
(1)continuationof thepregnancywouldinvolve arisk to thelife or physical or
Computerhackerswereformerlychargedwithoffencesof abstractingelectricity
mentalhealthof thepregnantwoman(orof otherchildrenof hers) thatisgreater
untilthe ComputerMisuseAct1990made *hackingaspecificcriminaloffence.
thantherisk of terminatingthe pregnancy,or (2)that thereisasubstantialrisk
thatthechild will bebornwithaseriousphysical or mentalhandicap. However, abstractionofwater The takingofwaterfromariveror othersource of
doctorsare notobligedto performabortionsif theycan provethattheyhave a supply. Itnormallyrequiresawaterauthoritylicence butthereare exceptions;for
conscientiousobjectionto sodoing. Ahusbandcannotpreventhis wifehavinga examplewhenlessthan1000gallons are taken,whenthewaterisfor domesticor
legal abortionif she sowishes.CompareCHILD DESTRUCTION. agriculturaluse (excludingsprayirrigation),or whenit isremovedin the courseof
fire-fightingor landdrainage.Ithas beenheld not to includegravitationallossfrom
abscondingn. Thefailure of apersonto surrenderto thecustodyof acourtin acanal replacingwaterdrawnfromaconnectingoutfallchannel.
order toavoid legal proceedings.SeealsoSURRENDER TO CUSTODY.
abstractoftitle Writtendetailsof the *titledeeds anddocumentsthatprovean
absencen. (incourtprocedure)Thenonappearanceof apartyto litigationor a
owner's rightto dispose of his land or an interestin this.Anabstractgenerallydeals
personsummonedto attendasawitness.
onlywiththe *legal estateand any equitableinterests thatare not *overreached.An
absent-mindednessn. SeeAUTOMATISM. ownerusuallysuppliesan abstractof titlebefore *completiontoan intending
purchaseror mortgagee,who comparesit withtheoriginaltitledeedswhenthese
absent parent SeeNONRESIDENTPARENT;CHILD SUPPORT MAINTENANCE.
are producedor handedover on completionof the transaction.Anabstractof title
absoluteassignment SeeASSIGNMENT. to registeredland consistsof *officecopiesof theentriesin the register(together
absolutedischarge SeeDISCHARGE. withan *authoritytoinspectthe register)and detailsof any otherdocuments
necessaryto prove the owner'stitle,suchasamarriagecertificateprovinga
absolute privilege Thedefencethatastatementcannotbemade the subjectof woman's changeofsurname.Forunregisteredland, theabstractof titlemust
an actionfor *defamationbecause it was made in Parliament,in papersorderedto usuallytracethehistoryof the land's ownershipfromadocumentat least 15years
be publishedbyeitherHouse of Parliament,in judicialproceedingsor afairand old(the *rootof title)and givedetailsof anydocumentcreatingencumbrancesto
abuseofa dominantposition 4 5 access
which the land issubject.Anabstractof titleformerlycomprisedextracts,oftenin canchargefor its services whenit considersthatthis isappropriate.Thelawon
abbreviatednoteform, butnow generallycomprisesduplicatecopiesof therelevant conciliationgenerallyiscontainedin the EmploymentTribunalsAct1996.
documents(anepitome oftitle).Anabstractor epitome,witheach copydocument accelerationn. The comingintopossession of a *futureinterestinany property
markedasexaminedagainst the original,may besufficientin itselfto deducetitle; at an earlierstagethanthatdirectedbythe transactionor settlementthatcreated
for instance,whenatitleissplitintolots,thepurchaserof each lot may be required the interest.Forexample,alandlord'sinterestin *reversionisacceleratedif the
toacceptan examinedabstractor epitomeinlieu of theoriginaltitledeeds, tenantsurrendersthe lease beforeit has expired.Whenawill bequeathsan interest
accompaniedbyan *acknowledgmentand undertaking. for life thatlapses (e.g.becausethe legateediesbeforethetestator),the interestof
abuseofadominantposition Unlawfulactivitiesbylargebusinesses,i.e. thepersonentitledin *remainderisacceleratedand takes effectimmediatelythe
usuallythosehavingamarketshareof at least40%inat leastone EUstate. testatordies.
Examplesof such activities,whichare contraryto *Article82of the TreatyofRome acceptancen. Agreement to thetermsof an *offerthat,providedcertainother
and theUKCompetitionAct1998,include refusingto supplyan existingcustomer requirementsare fulfilled. convertstheofferintoalegally bindingcontract.If the
and engagingin *predatorypricing.The EuropeanCommissionand theOffice of methodbywhichacceptanceisto besignifiedisindicatedbythe offeror,that
FairTradingcanfine businessesup to10%of annualworldwide turnoverfor breach methodalone will beeffective.Ifit isnot, acceptancemay beeitherexpress(by
ofArticle82.The recordindividualfine, of102MECUs(now euros),wasagainst wordof mouthor in writing)or inferredfrom theofferee'sconduct;for example,if
Volkswagenin1998;it was upheldonappealinJuly 2000.UndertheUKCompetition he receives goodsonapprovaland startstomakeuse of them.Theacceptancemust
Act1998a£3.21Mpenaltywasimposedon NappPharmaceuticals.SeeANTICOMPETITIVE always,however,involve some actionon thepartof thepersontowhomtheoffer
PRACTICE. was made: theofferorcannotassert thathis offerwill betreatedasacceptedunless
the offereerejectsit.Thevalidityof an acceptanceisgoverned byfourprincipal
abuseofprocess Atortwheredamageiscaused byusingalegal process for an
rules. (1)Itmusttakeplacewhilethe offerisstillin force, i.e.beforeit has lapsed
ulteriorcollateralpurpose.(See alsoMALICIOUS PROSECUTION.)Actions thatare
obviouslyfrivolous,vexatious,or in badfaithcan bestayed or dismissedbythe (see LAPSEOFOFFER)or been revoked(see REVOCATION OFOFFER).(2)Itmustbe onthe
same termsasthe offer.Anacceptancemade subjectto any variationistreatedasa
courtasan abuseof process.
counteroffer.(3) It mustbeunconditional,thusan acceptancesubjecttocontractis
abusivebehaviour SeeTHREATENING BEHAVIOUR. notavalidacceptance.(4)Itmustbecommunicatedto theofferor.Acceptanceby
letteristreatedascommunicatedwhenthe letterisposted, but telexisequated
ABWOR Advicebywayof representation:assistanceformerlygivento apersonby
withthetelephone,sothatcommunicationtakesplace only on receipt. However,
takingon his behalfany step in the institutionor conductofany proceedings
whenthe offerconsistsof apromiseto conferabenefiton whoevermay performa
beforeacourtor tribunalundertheprovisionsof the legal adviceand assistance
specifiedact, the offerorwaives the requirementof communicationasaseparate
scheme. The legal aidschemeunderwhichABWORwas createdwas replacedbythe
act. If,for example.he offersarewardfor information,apersonable to supplythe
"CommunityLegalServicefrom1April 2000.Underthenewscheme, the
informationisnotexpectedto accepttheofferformally. Theact of givingthe
authorizationof legal representationfor thepurposesof aparticularhearingisnow
informationitselfconstitutestheacceptance.the communicationof the acceptance,
inaformcalled helpatcourt.
and the performanceof thecontract.
ACAS AdvisoryConciliationand ArbitrationService:astatutorybody thatwas
acceptanceofabill Thewrittenagreementbythepersononwhoma *bill of
establishedundertheEmploymentProtectionAct1975;the compositionand
exchangeisdrawn(the drawee) thathewill accept the orderof the personwho
functions ofACASare now governedbyParts IVand VIof theTrade Union and
draws it uponhim(the drawer).Theacceptancemustbewrittenon the bill and
Labour Relations (Consolidation)Act1992.ACASwasset up to promotethe
signed. Thesignatureof thedraweewithoutadditionalwordsissufficient,although
improvementof industrialrelationsand the developmentof *collectivebargaining.
generallytheword"accepted"isused aswell.Upon acceptancethe draweebecomes
Inits conciliationfunction it mayintervene,withorwithoutthe parties'consent.in the acceptorand thepartyprimarilyliable uponthebill.SeealsoQUALIFIED
a *tradedisputeto offerfacilitiesand assistancein negotiatingasettlement.It
ACCEPTANCE.
employsconciliationofficerswho may assist partiesto an applicationtoan
employmenttribunalto reachasettlement.Earlier legislationremovedthenecessity acceptancesupraprotest(acceptancefor honour) Aformof *acceptanceofa
for bindingsettlementsof employmentdisputes to involve an ACASconciliation bill of exchangeto savethegoodnameof thedraweror an endorser.Ifabill of
officer:settlementscan now be made whentheinvididualhas had independentlegal exchangehas beeneitherthesubjectof a*protestfor dishonourbynonacceptance
advicefromaqualifiedlawyer. or protestedfor bettersecurity,and it isnot overdue,any personwho isnotalready
liable onthebill may.withtheconsentof the holder.acceptthebillsupraprotest.
ACASdoesnot itselfarbitratein tradedisputes,butwiththeconsentof both
Suchan acceptancemust bewrittenon the bill.indicatethatit isan acceptancefor
partiesit may referadispute to the *CentralArbitrationCommitteeor to an
honour,and besigned. Theacceptorfor honour engages thathewill paythebill on
independentarbitrator.ACAS may givefree adviceto employers,employees, and
due presentmentifit isnot paid bythe drawee, providedthatit has beenduly
their respectiverepresentativesonmattersof employmentor industrialrelations.It
presentedfor paymentand protestedfor nonpaymentand thathe receives noticeof
issues *codesof practicegivingguidanceon such mattersasdisciplinaryprocedures
these facts. Heisliable to the holderand toallpartiesto thebill subsequentto the
and *disclosureof informationto tradeunions. It may alsoconductinquiriesinto
partyfor whose honourhe accepted.
industrialrelationsproblems,eithergenerallyor in relationto particularbusinesses,
and publishtheresultsafterconsideringtheviewsof partiesdirectlyaffected.ACAS accessn. Formerly.the opportunitytovisit achild thatwas granted(atthe
accession 6 7 acknowledgment
discretionof thecourt)to its parentwhenthe otherparenthad thecare and control requiringone partytoarelationship(e.g.apartnership)toaccount to the otheror
of thechild afterdivorce or whenacustodianshiporderwas inforce. Sincethe othersformoneys receivedor due.Anaccountmay be:(1)openorcurrent,wherea
ChildrenAct1989came intoforce the conceptof accesshas been replacedbythatof balance hasnotbeenagreedor acceptedbyallparties;(2)stated,whereabalance
*contact.SeealsoSECTION 8ORDERS. hasbeenacceptedascorrectbyallparties;or (3) settled,whereabalance has been
acceptedand discharged.
accession n. 1.Theformal agreementofacountryto an international *treaty.
The termisappliedto theagreementof acountryto become amemberstateof the accountingrecords SeeBOOKSOFACCOUNT.
EuropeanUnion.Memberstatesaccede to the TreatyofRomeor any otherEU
accountofprofits Aremedythataclaimantcan claimasan alternativeto
treatybysigningaccessionagreements. 2.Theprocess of amemberof the royal
damagesin certaincircumstances,e.g.inan actionforbreachof *copyright.A
familysucceedingto the throne,whichoccurs immediatelyon thedeathor
successfulclaimantisentitledtoasum equal to themonetarygain the defendant
abdicationof theprevioussovereign.
has made throughwrongingtheclaimant.
accessland Landtowhichthepublicwill have accessfor thepurposesof open-air
accountspl.n. Astatementof acompany'sfinancial position.Allregistered
recreationunder the Countrysideand RightsofWayAct2000.Itincludesland
companiesmustpresentaccounts(inthe form prescribedbytheCompanies Act
shownasopen country(mountain,moor, heath,or down) onamapin conclusive
1985)annuallyat a *generalmeeting.Theseconsistof a *balancesheetand a *profit
formissued byan appropriatecountrysidebody(the CountrysideAgency or the
and-lossaccountwith*groupaccounts(ifappropriate)attached.Theyare
CountrysideCouncil for Wales)or ascommonland,or land situatedmorethan600
accompaniedbyadirectors' reportand an auditor'sreport.Alllimitedcompanies
metresabove sealevel,or land thathas beendedicatedasaccessland.
mustdelivercopies of theiraccountsto the *CompaniesRegistry(where theyare
accessoryn. Onewho isapartyto acrimethatisactuallycommittedbysomeone open to publicinspection)butcompaniesthatare classified(onthe basisof
else.Anaccessory isonewho eithersuccessfullyincitessomeoneto commitacrime turnover,balancesheettotal,and numberof members)as"small"or "medium-sized"
(counselsorprocures)or helps himto doso(*aidsand abets).Theaccessory is enjoycertainexemptions.Membersare entitledto besentcopies of the accounts.See
subjectto the same punishmentsand ordersasthe principal(seealsoCOMMON alsoELECTIVERESOLUTION; SUMMARYFINANCIAL STATEMENT.
DESIGN). Itisan offencetoassist apersonwhomone knows has committedan
accretionn. Theprocess bywhichnew land formations are legally assimilatedto
arrestableoffencewiththeintentionofimpedinghis apprehensionor prosecution.
old byachangein the flow ofawaterchannel.Incontrastto *avulsion, this process
SeealsoIMPEDINGAPPREHENSION ORPROSECUTION.
involves averyslow,nearimperceptible,naturalactionof waterand otherelements.
accessoryliability Ifastrangerknowinglyand dishonestlyassists atrusteeina Itwouldinclude,for example,thenaturaldiversionof aboundaryriverleavingan
breachof trusthewill beliable asan accessory.Hewill notusuallyhave received island, sandbank,or dryland whereit previouslyflowed, the formationof islands at
any trustassets;however,in assistingin the breachhe will be personallyliable to arivermouth,and additionsto adeltabythe depositof sand and soiluponthe
account to thetrustforany lossesarisingfromhisactions. shoreline.Accretionwill allowthe beneficiarystateto legitimatelyclaim title to the
accidentn. SeeFATALACCIDENTS; MISTAKE;ROADTRAFFICACCIDENTS. new land socreated.SeealsoTHALWEG, RULEOFTHE.
accidentrecordbook Arecordkeptbythe policeof detailsof the accidents they accumulationn. The continualadditionof theincomeof afund to thecapital, so
have investigated.Accessto thisisusuallyrequestedbysolicitorsactingin that the fundgrowsindefinitely.Before the AccumulationAct1800accumulation
subsequentlitigationrelatingto *roadtrafficaccidents.TheAssociationof Chief was permittedfor thelengthof theperpetuityperiod(i.e.livesin beingplus 21
PoliceOfficersTrafficCommitteehas issued guidelinesonchargesfor such reports. years: seeRULEAGAINST PERPETUITIES).Theperiodsfor whichaccumulationisnow
permittedare shorter;theyare listedin the Lawof PropertyAct1925and the
accommodationbill Abill of exchangeacceptedbyan accommodationparty, Perpetuitiesand AccumulationsAct1964and includeaperiodof 21years from the
i.e.apersonwho signs withoutreceivingvalue and for thepurposeof lendinghis dateof thedisposition, theperiodof thelife of thesettlor,and the durationof the
name(i.e.his credit) to someoneelse.Anaccommodationpartyisliable on the bill to minorityof any personmentionedin thedisposition.Incomeisoftendirectedto be
a *holderfor value.
accumulatedif (for example)thebeneficiaryisaminor,or theinterestin his favour
accomplicen. Onewho isapartyto acrime, eitherasa *principalor asan isprotectedor contingent,or if thetermsof atrustarediscretionary.
*accessory.SeealsoCORROBORATION. accusatorial procedure (adversaryprocedure) Asystemof criminaljusticein
accordand satisfaction The purchasebyone partyto acontractof arelease whichconclusionsasto liabilityare reachedbytheprocess of prosecutionand
fromhisobligationsunderit whenthe otherpartyhasalreadyperformedhis side defence. It istheprimarydutyof theprosecutorand defenceto press their
of the bargain.Arelease of thisone-sided natureconstitutesaunilateraldischarge respectiveviewpointswithinthe constraintsof therulesof evidencewhile the
of the contract;unless grantedbydeed,it canat commonlaw be effectedonly by judgeacts asan impartialumpire,who allows thefacts to emergefrom this
purchase,i.e.byafreshagreement(accord)for whichnewconsideration procedure.Common-lawsystemsusuallyadoptan accusatorialprocedure.Seealso
(satisfaction)isgiven. If,forexample,Aisdue to pay£1000on aparticulardate to B BURDEN OFPROOF.CompareINQUISITORIALPROCEDURE.
for contractualservices rendered,Bmightagreeto accept£900paid onan earlier
acknowledgmentn. 1.The admissionthatadebtisdue or aclaim exists. Under
date, theearlierpaymentconstitutingsatisfaction.CompareBILATERALDISCHARGE. See theLimitationAct1980,awrittenacknowledgmentbyadebtoror hisagentcauses
also (PROMISSORY) ESTOPPEL. thedebtto betreatedasif it had accruedon thedateof theacknowledgment,
accountn. Arightat commonlawand later(more importantly)in equity, providedthatthelimitationperiodisstill currentat thatdate. The resultisthat the
acknowledgmentand undertaking 8 9 actofstate
limitationperiodofsixyears for bringingan actionto recover the debtrunsfrom actionn. Aproceedingin whichapartypursuesalegal rightinacivilcourt.See
thedateof acknowledgment,rather thanthe dateonwhichthedebtinfactarose. alsoIN PERSONAM;IN REM.
SeealsoLIMITATION OFACTIONS. 2. Confirmationbythe signatorytoadocumentthat activetrust(specialtrust) Atrustthatimposesdutieson thetrusteeotherthan
the signatureonthedocumentishis own.Forexample,theWillsAct1837requires
thatof merelyhandingover the trustpropertyto thepersonentitledto it (compare
that the testator'ssignatureon thewill bemade or acknowledgedin thepresenceof
at least two witnessespresentat the same time. SinceJanuary1983it has alsobeen BARETRUST).Thesedutiesmay imposeaspecific obligationon thetrusteeor confera
discretiononhim.
possible for awitnessto acknowledgehis signaturein the presenceof thetestator.
act ofGod Aneventdue to naturalcauses (storms, earthquakes,floods,etc.)so
acknowledgmentand undertaking Confirmationin a *titledeed thata
exceptionallysevere thatno-one could reasonablybe expectedtoanticipateor guard
personmayseeand have copies of relevantdeedsnotin his possession
(acknowledgment),withapromisefrom the holderof themto keep themsafely againstit.SeeFORCE MAJEURE.
(undertaking).Thus whenpartof an owner'slandissold,he keeps his deeds to the Act ofParliament(statute) Adocument thatsets outlegal rulesand has
whole butin the conveyancegives this acknowledgmentand undertakingto the (normally) been passed bybothHouses of *Parliamentin theformof a *Billand
purchaser,who can thenprovehis titleto thepartfrom copies of theearlierdeeds agreedto bytheCrown(seeROYALASSENT). Under theParliamentActs1911and 1949,
and bycallingfor productionof theoriginals.In the majorityof casesthe vendor however,passingof publicBillsbythe House of Lordscan bedispensedwith,except
gives thepurchaseralltitledocuments relatingsolelyto theland conveyed, and an in the caseof Billsto extendthedurationof Parliamentor to confirmprovisional
acknowledgmentand undertakingisonly necessarywhenthisdoesnothappen.Note orders.Subjectto theseexceptions,theLordscan delay Billspassed bythe House of
thatpersonalrepresentativesand fiduciaryownerswill normallygiveonlyan Commons; it cannotblock themcompletely.IftheCommonspassamoneyBill(for
acknowledgment,noundertaking.Breach of an undertakinggives rise to anaction example,one givingeffectto the Budget)and the Lordsdonotpassit unaltered
in damages. withinone month,it may besubmitteddirectfor the royal assent. AnyotherBill
may receive theroyal assentwithoutbeingpassed bytheLordsif theCommonspass
acknowledgmentofservice Aresponsebyadefendantto aclaim.Adefendant
it in two consecutivesessions and at leastoneyear elapses betweenits second
who intends tocontestproceedingsbroughtagainsthimbyaclaimantmust
readingin thefirstsession and its thirdreadingin thesecond.
respondto the claim byfilingan acknowledgmentofservice and/orbyfilinga
EverymodernActof Parliamentbegins witha longtitle, whichsummarizesits
*defence. Acknowledgmentsof service are used if the defendantisunabletofile a
aims,and ends withashorttitle,bywhichit may becitedinany otherdocument.
defencewithintherequiredtimeor if thedefendantintends to dispute the
Theshorttitleincludes thecalendaryear in whichtheActreceives the royal assent
jurisdictionof the court,Byacknowledgingservice adefendantisgivenan extra14
(e.g.TheCompetitionAct1998).Analternativemethodof citationisbythe calendar
daysfor filing the defence. Ineffectthis meansthat the defendanthasa 28-day
year togetherwiththeChapternumberallottedto theActon receivingtheassent
periodafterservice of the claim beforethedefencemustbeserved. Oncethe
or,in the caseof an Actearlierthan1963,byits regnalyear or years and Chapter
defendanthas returnedtherelevantsectionof the acknowledgmentof service form,
number.Regnal years arenumberedfrom the dateof asovereign'saccession to the
thecourtmustnotifythe claimantinwriting.
throne,and anActisattributedto the year or years coveringthesessionin whichit
ACPstates TheAfrican, Caribbean,and Pacificstatesthatareassociatedwiththe receives the royal assent. (See alsoENACTING WORDS.)AnActcomes intoforce on the
EuropeanUnion throughthe LomeConvention.Thisconvention,whichwassigned dateof royal assentunlessit specifies adifferentdateor providesfor the dateto be
at Lome(Togo)in 1975,providesfor cooperationin mattersof commercebetween fixedbyministerialorder.
ACPstatesand EUstates,includingaccessto the EUmarketfor productsfrom the Actsof Parliamentareclassifiedbythe Queen'sPrinteraspublicgeneralActs,
ACPcountries.TheConventionalsoprovidesfor cooperationinindustrialand localActs,and personalActs.PublicgeneralActsincludeallActs(except those
financial matters.
confirmingprovisionalorders)introducedintoParliamentaspublicBills.LocalActs
acquiescencen. Express or implied *consent.In law,care mustbe takento compriseallActsintroducedasprivateBillsand confinedin operationtoa
distinguishbetweenmereknowledgeof asituationand positiveconsentto it.For particulararea, togetherwithActsconfirmingprovisionalorders.PersonalActsare
example,in the defenceof *volentinonfit injuriaan injuredpartywill not be ActsintroducedasprivateBillsand applyingto privateindividualsor estates. Acts
regardedashavingconsentedto arisk simplybecause he knewthattherisk existed. are alternativelyclassifiedaspublicActsorprivateActsaccordingto theirstatus
incourtsof law.ApublicAct isjudiciallynoticed(i.e.acceptedbythe courtsasa
acquiredrights SeeRELEVANTTRANSFER. matterofgeneralknowledge). AprivateActisnot, and mustbe expresslypleaded
acquiscommunautaire [French]The bodyof *Communitylegislationbywhich bythepersonrelyingonit.AllActssince1850arepublicunlesstheyspecifically
all EUmemberstatesare bound. provideotherwise.The printedversionof an Act,rather thanthe versionset outon
the HMSOwebsite,istheauthentic text,althoughtherearecurrentproposals(2001)
acquittaln. Adecision byacourt thatadefendantaccused of acrimeisinnocent.
toalterthis ruleundertheElectronicCommunicationsAct2000.
Acourtmustacquitadefendantfollowingaverdictof *notguiltyor asuccessful
plea of *autrefoisacquitor *autrefoisconvict.Onceacquitted,adefendantcannot be actofstate Anact,ofteninvolvingforce, of theexecutiveof astate,or
retriedfor thesame crimeonfresh evidence, butan acquittalinacriminalcourt committedbyan agent of asovereignpowerwithits priorapprovalorsubsequent
doesnot bindcivilcourts(for example, in relation toalibelchargeagainstsomeone ratification, thataffectsadverselyapersonwho doesnot oweallegiance to that
allegingthedefendant'sguilt). power. Thecourtshave powertodecidewhetheror notparticularconduct
