Out in the Cold: Science and the Environment in South Africa's Involvement in the sub-Antarctic ...

270 Pages·2012·6.39 MB·English

Out in the Cold: Science and the
Environment in South Africa’s
Involvement in the sub-Antarctic and
Antarctic in the Twentieth Century

Susanna Maria Elizabeth van der Watt

Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy (History) at the University of Stellenbosch

Supervisor: Prof. Sandra Swart
March 2012
Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za

Declaration

By submitting this dissertation electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work
contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to
the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that the reproduction and publication thereof
by Stellenbosch University will not infringe on any third party rights and that I have
not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification.

Signature: ………………………..

Date: ……………………………..

Copyright © 2011 Stellenbosch University
All rights reserved

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Abstract
This study addresses a little-known but important part of South Africa’s history: its
involvement with the sub-Antarctic and Antarctic in the twentieth century. It has a three-fold
approach. Firstly, it provides insight into the motives driving South Africa’s investment in the
region, from the first call for a South African Antarctic expedition in 1919 to the post-
apartheid recommitment to the South African Antarctic Programme. Interrogating of the
reasons behind South Africa’s activities in this region – including those that failed –throws
into relief broader issues about how and where South Africa saw itself in the geopolitical
order. As such, this dissertation is situated within a body of Antarctic scholarship that seeks
to subvert the prevailing homogenising narrative of the continent as simply the preserve of
scientists and heroes. In particular, it investigates how tropes of imperialism and nationalism
functioned in these remote corners of the world. Secondly, this dissertation investigates how
changing perceptions of the extreme environment of Antarctica, and specifically the Prince
Edward Islands, can add to our understanding of environmental history. It also shows how the
values projected onto and invested in the environment as ‘nature’ changed over time. Thirdly,
it takes into account the humans that were South Africa’s presence in the region and how the
underlying patterns in the fabric of South African society, including race and gender,
crystalized on the Antarctic continent.

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Opsomming
Hierdie studie is gerig op ʼn minder bekende, maar belangrike aspek van Suid-Afrika se
geskiedenis: die land se betrokkenheid by die sub-Antarktiese gebied en Antarktika in die
twintigste eeu. Die studie volg van ʼn drie-ledige benadering. Eerstens, verskaf dit insig in die
dryfvere agter Suid-Afrika se investering in die streek – vanaf die eerste beroep op ʼn Suid-
Afrikaanse Antarktiese ekspedisie in 1919, tot die post-apartheid regering se herverbintenis
tot die Suid-Afrikaanse Antarktiese program. Die ondersoek na die redes vir Suid-Afrika se
aktiwiteite in die streek – insluitend dié wat misluk het – bring breër kwessies oor Suid-
Afrika se selfbeskouing in die wêreld se geopolitieke orde, na vore. Hierdie studie word
binne ʼn kritiese raamwerk van navorsing oor Antarktika geplaas. Dié raamwerk streef daarna
om die oorheersende homogene beeld van die kontinent as die eksklusiewe grondgebied van
wetenskaplikes en helde, onder die soeklig te stel. In die besonder stel dit ondersoek in na hoe
imperialisme en nasionalisme in hierdie verafgeleë uithoeke van die aarde versinnebeeld is.
Tweedens, ondersoek hierdie studie hoe veranderende persepsies van Antarktika - en veral
die Prins Edward eilande - se uiterste omgewing tot ons begrip van omgewingsgeskiedenis
kan bydra. Dit dui ook aan die mate waartoe bestaande waardes wat op die omgewing as
‘natuur’ geprojekteer en gevestig is, mettertyd verander het. Die derde benadering neem die
mense wat Suid-Afrika se teenwoordigheid verpersoonlik het in aanmerking - en hoe die
onderliggende patrone in die Suid-Afrikaanse samelewing, insluitend ras en geslag, op die
Antarktiese kontinent uitgekristalliseer het.

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Acknowledgements
Writing this dissertation has been a fantastic and challenging voyage. I had the opportunity to
visit interesting and surprising places, archives and documents. It was a journey I would not
have been able to complete without the help and support I had along the way. First I would
like to express my gratitude towards my supervisor, Sandra Swart. She nudged me in the
right direction, told me where to find signposts along the way and has been a great source of
energy, wisdom and inspiration. Thank you. This terrain would have been much, much harder
to traverse without your guidance.
Three days out south on the SA Agulhas I received the news that the building housing the
Department of History had burned down. It has not been an easy year for the Department but
they remained very supportive. My friends-and-colleagues-in-exile, Chet Fransch, Sarah Duff
and Schalk van der Merwe were always ready with good humour, good advice, ready answers
and most importantly, excellent coffee!
A very special thank you to my travel partners on the Antarctic Legacy Project, Dora Scott
and John Cooper. Dora, thank you for sharing the research process, answering countless e-
mails and patiently keeping my eyes on the road. John, thank you for sharing your passion,
knowledge and vast library on the Prince Edward Islands and beyond, your hospitality, good
humour and for taking me on South Africa’s southernmost hiking trial.
Steven Chown, director the DST-NRF Centre for Invasion Biology (CIB) was the driving
force behind the Antarctic Legacy Project, facilitated many of my travels and has always
taken a great interest in my dissertation and the project’s work. At the CIB I also wish to
thank Jen Lee, Erika Nortjie, and Aleks Terauds for advice and support in my travels to
Antarctica and Marion Island, Engela Duvenhage for doing such an excellent job in getting
the media interested and Mawethu Nyakatya, Mathilda van den Vyfer, Anél Garthwaite for
administrative support.
This dissertation would have been lacking if it were not for the many interviewees who gave
us their valuable time, shared their memories freely, who were very hospitable and took a
great interest in the Antarctic Legacy Project. Thank you.
At the Department of Environmental Affairs, Directorate: Antarctica and Islands, I wish to
thank Henry Valentine, Shiraan Watson, Kusi Nxabangi, Hennie Smit, Carol Jacobs and
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Gideon van Zyl. I would also like to thank SANAE 49, SANAE 50, Captain Freddie
Lighthelm and the officers and crew on the SA Agulhas for tolerating my many questions.
The geomorphologists of 2010: I know it is a bad pun, but Christel Hansen, Mike Loubser
and Werner Nel, you rock!
Research towards this dissertation was made possible with the generous support of the
National Research Foundation (NRF), the Harry Crossley Foundation and merit scholarships
from the University of Stellenbosch. Thanks to Andrew Kaniki, Candice Steele, Chantal
Swartz and Rhodene Amos.
Without the help of many good librarians and archivists, I would have been lost. Paula
Conradie and Mimi Seyffert of the J.S Gericke library are surely irreplaceable. Thanks also to
Karin Marais and Anastasia at the South African Weather Services in Pretoria; Nawjal
Hendrickse and her staff at the South African National Library in Cape Town; Neels Muller
at the Department of International Relations and Cooperation, Pretoria; Janice van Tonder at
the Molteno Library, Cape Town, Tanya Barben at the Special Collections library, University
of Cape Town as well as Lacia Viljoen at NALN in Bloemfontein and Zabeth Bester. In
Britain, I would like to thank Naomi Boneham and Robert Headland. In the United States,
Laura Kissel and staff of the Byrd Polar Research Institute and the various archivists and
volunteers at the Nicholson Whaling Collection (Providence Public Library); the Whaling
Museum of New Bedford and the Mystic Seaport Museum of America and the Sea. The
research process was very much streamlined by the hard work of Laura-Jayne Robinson and
Alistair Glossop of the digitisation project at the University of Cape Town and thanks to
Lance van Sittert for granting me early access to the database.
This dissertation expedition was made much more rich and interesting by the SCAR History
Expert [Action] Group organised by Cornelia Lüdecke. It has greatly benefited from
discussions within the group, and Peder Roberts has been especially helpful and encouraging.
I am looking forward to your next book! Thanks also to Thierry Rousset, David Walton,
Denzil Miller, Tom Wheeler, Lance van Sittert and Thean Potgieter for fruitful discussions,
to Jane Carruthers who served as a respondent when I presented a research-in-progress
seminar for her helpful feedback and to Steffi Marung for her thorough and sound advice on
chapters two and three. Any mistakes and oversights are of course my own.
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Thanks to Lindie Koorts for translating the abstract, your advice on the intricacies of
nationalist politics and unflagging moral and practical support. Laurel Kriegler devoted
immense energy to the formatting of the dissertation before the examination and Wouter
Hanekom assisted with compiling the list of sources, thanks to both. The language and style
also benefitted from the critical eyes of Gideon and Ronél van der Watt and Laurel Kriegler.
Cobus van der Walt, Francis Ballot, Cisca and Steve Ballot, Johan and Werda van
Loggerenberg, Voeta and Susan Scott, Carla Potgieter, Daléne Bosman and Ana Lemmer,
thank you for your hospitality and kindness.
I was lucky to have firm home support from many friends. It would have been a much more
tedious and lonely three years without them. For all the prayers, text messages, late-night
phone calls, meals, flowers, treats, admin runs and long walks, thank you. I would be a much
poorer human being without you.
Thanks also to my fellow HFM’ers! And of course my thanks to Kyle and Mojo. I am finally
giving you something to read.
Lastly, I would like to thank my family as well as my wonderful parents, and my
Schwesterchen. Thank you for keeping me grounded, for encouraging my curiosity and for
your love and it is to you that I dedicate this work.

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Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... iii
Opsomming ............................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... v
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................... viii
Table of Figures ........................................................................................................................ xi
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ..................................................................................... xiii
List of Archival Abbreviations ................................................................................................ xv
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Literature review .................................................................................................................... 3
Sources and method ............................................................................................................. 13
Structure and chapters ......................................................................................................... 23
Chapter 1 Weather, Whales and War: South Africa in the sub-Antarctic and Antarctic 1919 –
c.1946 ....................................................................................................................................... 26
Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 26
The ‘South African sector’ ................................................................................................... 29
Meteorological potential of the Antarctic regions 1919–1925 ............................................ 31
The public ‘use’ of the Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic weather and resources ...................... 39
The southern reaches of the Empire 1908–1926 ................................................................. 41
Antarctic Whaling ................................................................................................................ 44
Towards a South African Antarctic Policy .......................................................................... 56
The ‘Union and the Antarctic’ Memorandum of 1935 ......................................................... 58
War ....................................................................................................................................... 60
The first South African Antarctic Research Committee, 1944–1946 ................................... 61
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 65
Chapter 2 Outposts of the Cold War: From the Prince Edward Islands to Antarctica, 1947 –
c.1955 ....................................................................................................................................... 67
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Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 67
Antarctica and the Sub-Antarctic at the Onset of the Cold War.......................................... 68
The Occupation of the Prince Edward Islands, 1945–1948 ................................................ 70
Internationalisation: Proposals and Expeditions, 1948 – 1952. ......................................... 84
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 96
Chapter 3 Between East and West: locating the Antarctic in a new world order, c.1955 –
c.1960 ....................................................................................................................................... 98
Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 98
South Pole Safari: The Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition .................................. 98
More Proposals for a Multilateral Solution to the ‘Antarctic Problem’ ........................... 107
The International Geophysical Year 1957–1959 ............................................................... 112
The Antarctic Treaty: 1958–1960 ...................................................................................... 115
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 127
Chapter 4 The most isolated continent and the pariah state, c.1961–1995 ............................ 128
Introduction........................................................................................................................ 128
Antarctica, prestige and infrastructure c.1959–1963 ........................................................ 130
Resource Regimes: ‘Those Icy Wastes May Hide a Fortune,’ c.1970–1990 ..................... 143
Resources, environmentalists and the UN, c.1982–1991 .................................................. 154
‘The Question of Antarctica’ and South Africa at the UN, 1983–1992 ............................. 155
Internal Challenges ............................................................................................................ 160
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 165
Chapter 5 ‘…this 90 square miles of weird desolation’: Science and the Environment in the
History of South Africa’s Prince Edward Islands, 1947–1995 .............................................. 167
Introduction........................................................................................................................ 167
A Short Natural History of the Prince Edward Islands ..................................................... 168
The nature of South Africa’s ‘new empire’, 1947– c.1957 ................................................ 169
From ‘just pure and simple a weather station’ to a ‘Marion school for young scientists’ 181
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Science, the environment and the killer cats, 1962– c.1990 .............................................. 183
Explosive issues: Missiles, airstrips and environmental controls ..................................... 187
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 191
Chapter 6 Sanctioned science and South Africa’s Antarcticans, c.1950 – c.1996 ................ 193
Introduction........................................................................................................................ 193
Science and South Africa’s National Antarctic Programme ............................................. 194
South Africa’s Antarcticans ............................................................................................... 200
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 230
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 232
List of sources ........................................................................................................................ 239

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