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Eighth Edition
Our Global
Environment
A Health Perspective
Anne Nadakavukaren
Jack Caravanos
NYU College of Global Public Health
WAVELAND
PRESS, INC.
Long Grove, Illinois
Nada-Caravanos FrontMatter.fm Page ii Friday, January 3, 2020 10:56 AM
For information about this book, contact:
Waveland Press, Inc.
4180 IL Route 83, Suite 101
Long Grove, IL 60047-9580
(847) 634-0081
[email protected]
www.waveland.com
Copyright © 2020 by Anne Nadakavukaren and Jack Caravanos
Copyright © 2011, 2006, 2000, 1995, 1990, 1986, 1984 by Anne Nadakavukaren
10-digit ISBN 1-4786-3771-4
13-digit ISBN 978-1-4786-3771-4
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans-
mitted in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Nadakavukaren-Caravanos 8E.book Page iii Friday, January 3, 2020 10:43 AM
Contents
Preface v 3 The People-Food Predicament 63
Acknowledgments vi Food Supply 63
Factors Influencing Food Demand 64
Extent of Hunger 65
PPaarrtt 11
Causes of Hunger 66
PPeeooppllee,, PPrrooggrreessss,, aanndd NNaattuurree:: Health Impact of Hunger 68
IIss CCoonnfflliicctt IInneevviittaabbllee?? 11 Prospects for
Reducing World Hunger 73
1 Introduction to Ecological Principles 5 4 Impacts of Growth on Ecosystems 85
Ecosystems 6 Degradation of Land Resources 85
Biotic Community 6 Loss of Biodiversity 99
Ecological Dominants 9
Biomes 13
PPaarrtt 22
Ecological Niches 15
Limiting Factors 17 OOuurr TTooxxiicc EEnnvviirroonnmmeenntt::
Limits of Tolerance 18
DDooeess EEvveerryytthhiinngg CCaauussee CCaanncceerr?? 111111
Energy Flow through the Biosphere 18
Biogeochemical Cycling 21
Change in Ecosystems 25 5 Environmental Disease 113
Mutation 113
2 Population Dynamics 31 Environmental Epigenetics 118
Population Attributes 31 Birth Defects 118
Population Growth Forms 32 Cancer 124
Human Population Growth 33
Population Explosion 36 6 Toxic Substances 137
Urbanization 44 Assessing Toxicity 137
Population Projections 49 Assessing Health Risk 140
Efforts to Limit Population Growth 49 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) 144
Birth Control— Dioxin (TCDD) 146
Its Health Impact 53 Asbestos 149
Family Planning in Low- and Lead 155
Middle-Income Countries 56 Mercury 164
Population Policy:
Moving Beyond Birth Control 59
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iv Contents
7 Pests and Pesticides 169 11 Air Pollution 319
What Is a Pest? 169 Sources of Air Pollution 320
Problems Caused by Pests 169 Impact of Air Pollution
Pest Control 178 on Human Health 323
Environmental Impact Pollution Control Efforts—
of Pesticide Use 184 The Clean Air Act 328
Hazards to Human Health 191 Global Air Quality Trends 335
Alternatives to Acid Deposition 339
Chemical Pest Control 196 Indoor Air Pollution 347
8 Food Quality 203 12 Noise Pollution 357
Food Contaminants 204 Sources of Noise 357
Food Additives 210 Noise as a Nuisance 358
Foodborne Disease: Nature of Sound 359
Natural Toxins in Food 212 Noise and Hearing Loss 362
Foodborne Disease: Other Effects of Noise 364
Microbial Contamination 214 Noise Control Efforts 368
Preventing Foodborne Disease 225
13 Water Resources 371
9 Radiation 233 Hydrologic Cycle 371
Ionizing Radiation 233 Water Quantity and Health 372
Ionizing Radiation and Water Supply: Our Next Crisis? 373
Nuclear Power Generation 247 Groundwater 378
Ultraviolet Radiation 260 Water Management: Increasing
Depletion of the Ozone Layer 263 Supply versus Reducing Demand 383
Microwaves 265
Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs) 266 14 Water Pollution 393
Controlling Water Pollution:
The Clean Water Act 393
PPaarrtt 33
Sources of Water Pollution 395
EEnnvviirroonnmmeennttaall DDeeggrraaddaattiioonn:: Municipal Sewage Treatment 401
HHooww WWee FFoouull OOuurr OOwwnn NNeesstt 226677 New Approaches
to Wastewater Treatment 410
Septic Systems 412
10 Climate Change, Public Health, and 269 Industrial Discharges 413
Renewable Energy Water Pollution and Health 418
Introduction 269 Looking Ahead 430
Composition of the Atmosphere 272
Climate Change Science 274 15 Solid and Hazardous Wastes 431
The Greenhouse Effect 274 Waste Disposal—A Brief History 431
The Albedo Effect 279 Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) 432
Warming Ocean Waters 282 Current Waste Disposal Alternatives 435
Rate of Global Warming 283 Hazardous Wastes 451
Public Health Impacts Hazardous Waste Management
of Climate Change 285 Legislation: RCRA 461
Prevention, Mitigation,
and Adaptation Strategies 294 Appendix 467
Clean Energy and Climate Change 303
References 471
Energy Efficiency 303
Index 492
Alternative Energy Technologies 308
Future Outlook 316
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Preface
O
ur Global Environmental: A Health Perspective is intended variety of useful exercises to help students review and
as a text for introductory level courses in environmental master the material, while the online Instructor’s Resource
health or human ecology, presenting a broad survey of the Materials offer chapter tests and answer keys as well as
major environmental issues facing society early in the 21st answers to the Study Guide questions.
century. The book combines an overall ecological concern In order to give students a perspective on the kinds of
with specific elements related to personal and community actions being taken to deal with identified problems, a
health. It emphasizes the interrelatedness of the two and brief description of federal statutes dealing with particu-
conveys to students an awareness of how current environ- lar environmental issues is included wherever appropri-
mental issues, both global and local, directly affect their ate. Though political winds shift and enforcement efforts
own lives. Commencing with a rudimentary discussion of vary (witness the Trump administration’s efforts to dis-
general ecological principles, the text focuses primarily on mantle the Obama administration’s environmental pro-
our present population-resources-pollution crisis and grams), these regulatory statutes are the foundation of
explains why human health and welfare depend on suc- our environmental protection program and crucial to
cessful resolution of these challenges. ensuring a safe and healthy environment. The ability of
Intended for a one-semester course, the text consists citizens to influence public policy is stressed throughout
of 15 chapters and is divided into three main sections. the book, a basic purpose of the text being to provide stu-
Discussion within each chapter covers general aspects of dents with sufficient information and insight into envi-
the subject in question, while specific illustrative exam- ronmental problems to enable them to understand and
ples are placed in box inserts. The Eighth Edition fea- participate in the public decision-making processes that
tures a comprehensive new chapter on climate change, will profoundly influence health and environmental qual-
public health impacts, and renewable energy, as well as ity in the decades ahead.
16 pages of color images that illuminate the presentation Finally, this latest edition brings onboard a coauthor,
of specific environmental issues. Extensive revision and Dr. Jack Caravanos of NYU’s College of Global Public
updates were made throughout the text to reflect current Health. Jack’s extensive experience in international envi-
topics of concern; in particular, additional detail has ronmental health issues has added a fresh and exciting
been added to discussions of global environmental health perspective and his photographs are interspersed through-
challenges with special focus on countries with develop- out the new edition.
ing economies. An accompanying Study Guide provides a
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Acknowledgments
A
s always, I would like to express my sincere gratitude done extensive environmental health investigations in
to the former colleagues at Illinois State University who low- and middle-income countries and that these experi-
provided encouragement, insights, valuable suggestions, ences would enhance the new edition.
and reviews of earlier editions of this text. I would also Though I have been practicing environmental health
like to acknowledge Laurie Prossnitz, Waveland Press, at the national level since the 1980s, the turning point in
whose friendly cooperation and painstaking editorial my career occurred during a sabbatical in 2005, when
efforts have been sincerely appreciated; Neil Rowe, pub- Richard Fuller (CEO of Pure Earth) sent me to India for
lisher of Waveland Press, for his cooperation and help; three weeks to assess toxic waste sites. What I saw
and especially my husband Mathew and daughters for changed me forever and redirected the remainder of my
their loving support and understanding during the course career into addressing environmental health issues in
of this project. low- and middle-income countries. I continue to work as
Anne Nadakavukaren Director of Research with Pure Earth (formerly Black-
smith Institute) wherever it takes me. Thank you, Rich-
ard, and thank you to my colleagues and friends at Pure
I have been using Our Global Environment in the class-
Earth, who continue to provide me with opportunities to
room since my early days of teaching as a graduate stu-
make a difference. I owe an enormous thank you to
dent at Columbia University. So when Anne asked if I
Anne for trusting me with this task, and to our editor,
was interested in serving as coauthor of the new edition,
Laurie Prossnitz. Finally, I’d like to extend a special
I was thrilled by her offer. My students have praised the
thank you to my wonderful wife, Martina Lynch, whose
text’s richness and wonderful readability, and thus I was
continuous support, encouragement, and reminders
both honored to be associated with such a well-regarded
(“did you work on the book today?”) were sincerely
text and a bit apprehensive about taking on the formida-
appreciated. I love you.
ble task of updating the enormous amount of informa-
tion contained within its pages. Anne knew from my Jack Caravanos
work with the global nonprofit, Pure Earth, that I had
vi
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IInn nnaattuurree tthheerree aarree nneeiitthheerr rreewwaarrddss nnoorr
ppuunniisshhmmeennttss——tthheerree aarree ccoonnsseeqquueenncceess..
——RR.. GG.. IInnggeerrssoollll
Part 1
People, Progress, and Nature
Is Conflict Inevitable?
H
uman beings, as a species, are unquestionably the lems have now become global concerns, demanding
dominant form of life on Earth today. Inhabiting every unprecedented international cooperation if they are ever
continent, roaming the seas, exploring space, creating glit- to be resolved. Achieving such cooperation and commit-
tering cities and festering slums, taming rivers, bringing ment requires a fundamental understanding of the nature
water to the desert, harnessing the atom, tinkering with the of the problems facing society and a realization by policy
gene—people often deceive themselves into believing they makers and the public of the consequences of inaction.
are all-powerful creatures, apart from the rest of nature. Yet In the United States, attitudes regarding humanity’s
a half million years of cultural evolution cannot alter the relationship to the natural world have changed radically
fact that humans, like all other living organisms, are inex- during the past 100 years. Reflecting prevailing beliefs in
tricably bound up in the web of interdependency and inter- the “Old World” countries from which they came, most
relationships that characterize life on this planet. Human pre-20th century American immigrants considered them-
health, well-being, and indeed survival are ultimately selves “above” nature and viewed the seemingly infinite
dependent on the health and integrity of the whole envi- resources of a sparsely populated continent simply as
ronment in which we live. Today, the natural world that we “things” to be exploited for human benefit. Though a few
share with all other forms of life on this planet is under early American writers like Thoreau extolled the value of
unprecedented attack, not by outside forces of evil, as in a unspoiled surroundings, most of his contemporaries
science fiction movie, but rather by a wide range of human viewed wilderness as an enemy to be conquered and pro-
activities and the sheer pressure of human numbers. Some- ceeded to do so. After the Civil War, destruction of
times unwittingly, sometimes with full awareness of the America’s natural heritage accelerated, as railroads con-
consequences of our actions, we are rapidly altering the nected the far-flung regions of a vast continent and mil-
basic foundations of the environment that sustains us. lions of settlers streamed westward. By the end of the
Although the destructive impact of human activities 1800s, the “frontier” was no more; most of the virgin for-
on the natural environment is nothing new—as the ests east of the Mississippi had been felled, the enormous
extinction of woolly mammoths by Prehistoric hunters or herds of bison that once blanketed the Great Plains had
the deforestation of ancient Greece bears witness—the been reduced to a pitiful remnant, and the passenger
“human footprint” has expanded exponentially during pigeon was about to become extinct.
the past two centuries, particularly in the years since At the dawn of the 20th century, attitudes toward the
World War II. What were once local or regional prob- natural world slowly began to change. At first, concerns
1
