Table Of ContentTechnology, Innovation and Policy (ISI)
Guido Reger
Ulrich Schmoch E ditors
Organisation
of Science and
Technology at the
Watershed
The Academic and Industrial Perspective
TECHNOLOGY, INNOVATION, and POLICY 3
Series of the Fraunhofer Institute
for Systems and Innovation Research (lSI)
Guido Reger· Ulrich Schmoch (Eds.)
Organisation of Science
and Technology
at the Watershed
The Academic
and Industrial Perspective
With 82 Figures
and 16 Tables
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
Guido Reger and Dr. Ulrich Schmoch
Fraunhofer Institute for
Systems and Innovation Research
Breslauer Str. 48
0-76139 Karlsruhe, Germany
ISBN 978-3-7908-0910-7
Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme
Organisation of science and technology at the watershed: th
academic and industrial perspective; with 16 tables I Guido
Reger; Ulrich Schmoch (ed.). - Heidelberg: Physica-Verl.,
1996
(Technology, innovation, and policy; 3)
ISBN 978-3-7908-0910-7 ISBN 978-3-642-52470-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-52470-7
NE: Reger, Guido [Hrsg.]; GT
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Foreword
A modern system of production and dissemination of research, technology and
development (RTD) results is characterized by a high push/pull interaction and close
linkages within the research system, as well as between the research system and
industry/public demand. This is contrary to the traditional understanding of
technology transfer. Partly the European Union also used this traditional concept in
promoting technology transfer and innovation. For example, the mandate of the
former European VALUE Programme was the exploitation and dissemination of
existing results of RTD of the framework programme.
The specific ways of producing RTD results have a decisive influence on the
dissemination and exploitability for the ultimate clients of this dissemination process,
industry and society. Modern systems of knowledge production will be
transdisciplinary, application-oriented and network-dominated in contrast to
discipline-based, internally driven and individually dominated traditional systems.
Within the new dynamic systems, public bodies like national governments or the
European Commission increasingly have to play the role of a mediator between
disciplines, institutions and nations. One major aim is the creation of stronger
linkages between basic and applied research, for which new ways in the management
of R&D systems are required. This dynamic interaction between science and
technology is the main focus of this book. Therefore it emphasizes a highly relevant
policy issue.
From the perspective of flrms and their technology management, as well as from the
viewpoint of research systems, the studies in this book show in an exemplary manner
how the evolution of concepts of innovation, empirical evidence of modern research
systems and firms' technology management lead to new insights. They are the basis
for highly relevant policy conclusions and the development of a new integrated
policy approach promoting dissemination and exploitation.
Frieder Meyer-Krahrner
Director of Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research, Karlsruhe,
Germany
Table of Contents
Foreword .................................................................................................................. V
Introduction: the rationale behind this book ....................................................... X!
PART I
The Role of the Scientific Community in the Generation of Technology ........... 1
(U. Schmoch, S. Hinze, G. ]iickel, N. Kirsch, F. Meyer-Krahmer, G. Miinl)
Executive summary of part I ................................................................................... 3
1. Introduction to part 1 ...................................................................................... 15
2. Relation of science to research and development -definition of
concepts ............................................................................................................. 19
3. R&D systems in selected countries ................................................................ 29
3.1 Germany ................................................................................................... 29
3.2 Great Britain ............................................................................................. 39
3.3 Greece ...................................................................................................... 47
3.4 General conclusions ................................................................................. 51
3.5 Abbreviations of chapter 3 ....................................................................... 53
4. Knowledge transfer from non-industrial research institutions to
industry .............................................................................................................5 7
4.1 The contribution of basic science to technology ..................................... 58
4.2 Impact of science according to industrial sectors, company types,
and technical areas ................................................................................... 62
4.3 Types and mechanisms of knowledge transfer.. ...................................... 67
4.4 Conditions for success of efficient knowledge transfer .......................... 75
4.5 Instruments for promoting knowledge transfer ....................................... 80
5. The role of science within models and theories of the innovation
process ............................................................................................................... 87
5.1 Innovation theories of Schumpeter .......................................................... 87
5.2 Linear models ........................................................................................... 89
5.3 Feedback and parallel models of the innovation process ........................ 93
5.4 Embedding of innovation models into broader conceptions ................. 105
5.5 Interaction model of innovation ............................................................. 115
VIII
6. The role of scientific institutions within national systems of
innovation ....................................................................................................... 121
6.1 Theories on national systems of innovation .......................................... 121
6.2 National patterns of specialisation and their impact on the
science system ........................................................................................ 125
6.3 Technological forecast and change in national systems of
innovation ............................................................................................... 127
6.4 Inferences of the theory of national systems of innovation .................. 130
7. Conclusions and recommendations ............................................................. 133
7.1 Open research questions ........................................................................ 133
7.2 RTD dissemination policies ................................................................... 135
PART II
Challenges to and Management of R&D Activities ....•...................................... 13 9
(G. Reger, K Cuh/s, D. von Wichert-Nick)
Executive summary of part II. ............................................................................. 141
1. Introduction: main issues of part II ............................................................. 145
2. Challenges to the management of R&D ...................................................... 147
2.1 Economic challenges ............................................................................. 148
2.2 Technological developments ................................................................. 150
2.3 Internationalisation of markets and R&D .............................................. 154
2.4 Human resources .................................................................................... 158
2.5 Environmental pro.tection and sustainable development ....................... 161
2.6 Summary: main challenges for R&D management ............................... 164
3. Basic models of R&D management ............................................................. 167
3.1 Defining research and development, science and technology ............... 169
3.2 Tasks of R&D management and strategic purpose of R&D ................. 171
3.3 Some generalized models of R&D management... ................................ 176
3.3.1 The fifth generation innovation process ................................................ 177
3.3.2 The third generation R&D ..................................................................... 180
3.3.3 Three paradigms scenario for the organisation of R&D ....................... 182
3.3.4 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 185
IX
4. Tools for R&D activities ............................................................................... 187
4.1 Corporate culture and significance for R&D (Interface I) .................... 188
4.1.1 Definition: culture as system of symbols .............................................. 188
4.1.2 Corporate culture: core of the enterprise and R&D ............................... 189
4.1.3 Motivation of researchers as main challenge ........................................ 192
4.1.4 Corporate culture is no instrument ........................................................ 194
4.2 Organisation of R&D and global R&D integration (Interface I) .......... 197
4.2.1 Organisational forms of R&D ................................................................ 197
4.2.2 Factors influencing professionalisation of R&D ................................... 203
4.2.3 Implications for R&D management... .................................................... 204
4.3 R&D management and the concept of core competence
(Interface I) ............................................................................................. 209
4.3.1 Definitions and dimensions of core competence ................................... 210
4.3.2 Leveraging, development and renewal of competence ......................... 213
4.3.3 Implications for R&D management... .................................................... 216
4.3.4 Conclusions: R&D projects beyond existing core areas ....................... 222
4.4 Technological forecasting in enterprises (Interface I) ........................... 225
4.4.1 Task of enhancing the information base ................................................ 225
4.4.2 Techniques used in business forecasting ............................................... 226
4.4.3 Main challenge: accelerated environmental dynamics .......................... 229
4.4.4 Technology assessment: problems and the use of forecasting
methods .................................................................................................. 230
4.4.5 Various problems in application ............................................................ 232
4.4.6 Implications for R&D management... .................................................... 235
4.5 Cooperation and networking (Interface II) ............................................ 238
4.5.1 Different forms of collaboration ............................................................ 238
4.5.2 Reasons for and purposes of cooperation .............................................. 242
4.5.3 Problems of collaboration ...................................................................... 246
4.6 Management of scientific, technical and functional interfaces
(Interface III) .......................................................................................... 250
4.6.1. Defining the management of interfaces ................................................. 250
4.6.2 Challenges from the growing overlapping of technologies .................. 251
4.6.3 Managing interdisciplinarity .................................................................. 253
4.6.4 Simultaneous engineering ...................................................................... 254
4.6.5 Implications for R&D management... .................................................... 259
5. General conclusions and recommendations ................................................ 261
5.1 Open research questions ........................................................................ 261
5.2 Issues for technology policy of the European Union ............................ 263
x
PART ill
The Organisation of Interdisciplinarity -Research Structures
in the Areas of Medical Lasers and Neural Networks .................................... 267
(U. Schmoch, S. Breiner, S. Cuhls, S. Hinze, G. Munt)
Executive summary of part ill ........................................................................ 269
1. Introduction to part ITI ............................................................................. 275
2. Interdisciplinarity: a literature review ..................................................... 277
2.1 Emergence of disciplines in science and need for (re)integration ......... 278
2.2 Definition of different types of interdisciplinary research ..................... 283
2.3 Interdisciplinary research for technological development. .................... 284
2.4 Interdisciplinarity in science and technology ........................................ 286
3. Medical lasers ........................................................................................•... 293
3.1 Reasons of choice ............................................................................... 293
3.2 Technological description ................................................................... 294
3.2.1 History and principles ......................................................................... 294
3.2.2 Properties of laser light and different types of lasers ............................ 297
3.2.3 Lasers in medical applications ............................................................. 300
3.3 Bibliometric analysis ........................................................................... 305
3.4 Interview results ................................................................................. 315
3.4.1 Main activities of interview partners ................................................... 315
3.4.2 Future research trends ........................................................................ 318
3.4.3 Structures of interdisciplinary research ............................................... 319
3.4.4 Problems of interdisciplinarity ............................................................. 327
3.4.5 Areas of public promotion .................................................................. 328
4. Neural networks ..................................................•.•........................•.......... 333
4.1 Reasons of choice ............................................................................... 333
4.2 Technological description ................................................................... 335
4.2.1 History and principles ......................................................................... 335
4.2.2 Principal models ................................................................................. 340
4.2.3 Application of neural networks ........................................................... 341
4.3 Bibliometric analysis ........................................................................... 343
4.4 Intervie\v results ................................................................................. 349
4.4.1 Main activities of interview partners ................................................... 349
4.4.2 Future research trends ........................................................................ 354
4.4.3 Structures of interdisciplinary research ............................................... 356
4.4.4 Problems of interdisciplinarity ............................................................. 363
4.4.5 Areas of public promotion .................................................................. 365
5. General conclusions and recommendations .................•..........................• 369
Appendix .......................................................................................................... 373
References. ........................................................................................................ 399
Introduction: the rationale behind this book
The economic development of the 20th century is characterised by an increasing
significance of science-based technology. At the beginning of the 21st century the
impact of science and technology will become even more important, and the limits
between pure basic research, oriented basic research and applied research will
become blurred. Against this background, a more detailed understanding of the
interaction between science and technology is necessary, in order to develop
appropriate tools for future R&D management and technology policy.
In 1992, the General Directorate XIII of the European Commission launched a new
research programme called VALUE II which aims at an improved dissemination and
exploitation of European research activities. Within this programme, the sub-section
Interface II concerns the examination of the interface between European activities
and the scientific community. According to the recommendations of the Think-Tank
group of VALUE II, Interface II should analyse new ways of diffusing already
existing results of research supported by the Commission as well as a better
integration of scientific institutions in the conception of new European research
programmes. Therefore, the aims of VALUE II, Interface II, largely meet the above
formulated need of a better understanding of the interaction between science and
technology.
The present book consists of three research projects which the Fraunhofer Institute
for Systems and Innovation Research (lSI) in Karlsruhe carried out within the
framework of VALUE II, Interface JIl. Each of the three parts of the book
represents a revised version of a separate final report to the European Commission
and can be read independently of the other parts of the book. In consequence, each
part has its own introduction and executive summary; furthermore, specific
conclusions for the work of the European Commission are drawn. Due to the
common context of these projects, the three parts have certain overlaps; but at the
same time, a variety of interesting cross references appear.
The first part dt:3cribes the structure of the science/technology interface on different
levels of aggregation and with different approaches. A major concern of this part is
to analyse the role of science for the generation of new technologies and to examine
1 Schmoch et aI. (19930), Reger et aI. (1994), Schmoch et aI. (1994).
