Options for reducing mercury use in products and applications, and the fate of mercury already ...

331 Pages·2008·7.97 MB·English

European Commission
Directorate-General Environment
Contract: ENV.G.2/ETU/2007/0021

Options for reducing mercury use
in products and applications,
and the fate of mercury
already circulating in society
FINAL REPORT
December 2008

European Commission
Directorate-General Environment

Options for reducing mercury use
in products and applications,
and the fate of mercury
already circulating in society
FINAL REPORT

December 2008

Contract: ENV.G.2/ETU/2007/0021

Prepared by
Carsten Lassen (Project Manager), Birgitte Holt Andersen and Jakob Maag
COWI A/S, Havneparken 1, DK-7100 Vejle, Denmark
Peter Maxson
Concorde East/West Sprl, 10 av. René Gobert, 1180 Brussels, Belgium
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Mercury use in products and applications and the fate of mercury already circulating in society
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Mercury use in products and applications and the fate of mercury already circulating in society
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Summary 7
1 Introduction 19
1.1 Background and objectives 19
1.2 Methodology 20
2 Mercury and alternatives in products and processes and
accumulation in society 23
2.1 Chlor alkali production 23
2.1.1 Regulation of mercury cell plants 23
2.1.2 Mercury emissions, consumption and releases 24
2.1.3 Accumulation in society 25
2.1.4 Mercury-free alternatives 26
2.1.5 Wastes and releases 27
2.1.6 Mercury mass balance 27
2.2 Light sources 27
2.2.1 Major applications of light sources with mercury 27
2.2.2 Lamp supplies and mercury content 28
2.2.3 Mercury accumulated in society 32
2.2.4 EU producers of lamps 33
2.2.5 Mercury-free alternatives 34
2.2.6 Collection and treatment of mercury-containing light sources 36
2.2.7 Mercury mass balance 39
2.3 Batteries 40
2.3.1 Applications and battery types 40
2.3.2 Battery markets and quantities of mercury 41
2.3.3 Accumulation of mercury in batteries in society 45
2.3.4 Mercury-free alternatives 46
2.3.5 Battery manufacturers 47
2.3.6 Collection and treatment of mercury batteries 47
2.3.7 Mercury mass balance 52
2.4 Dental amalgam 52
2.4.1 Mercury use and emissions 52
2.4.2 Imports and exports 53
2.4.3 Accumulation of mercury in society 54
2.4.4 Mercury-free alternatives 55
2.4.5 Suppliers of amalgams and alternatives 56
2.4.6 Mercury in dental wastes 57
2.4.7 Mercury mass balance 61
2.5 Measuring equipment 61
2.5.1 Applications of mercury and alternatives 62
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Mercury use in products and applications and the fate of mercury already circulating in society
2.5.2 Current mercury consumption and trade 82
2.5.3 Mercury accumulated in society 83
2.5.4 Mercury-free alternatives 85
2.5.5 Producers of mercury-containing products 88
2.5.6 Collection and treatment of mercury waste 89
2.5.7 Data gaps 90
2.5.8 Mercury mass balance 91
2.6 Switches, relays and other electrical components 91
2.6.1 Applications of mercury and alternatives 91
2.6.2 Current use and trade of mercury 101
2.6.3 Mercury accumulated in society 102
2.6.4 Mercury-free alternatives 102
2.6.5 Producers of mercury-containing products in the EU 104
2.6.6 Collection and treatment of waste 105
2.6.7 Data gaps 106
2.6.8 Mercury mass balance 106
2.7 Mercury chemicals 106
2.7.1 Application of mercury chemicals 106
2.7.2 Current mercury consumption and trade 125
2.7.3 Mercury accumulated in society 127
2.7.4 Mercury-free alternatives 128
2.7.5 Producers of mercury compounds and alternatives 130
2.7.6 Collection and treatment of waste 130
2.7.7 Data gaps 131
2.7.8 Mercury mass balance 131
2.8 Miscellaneous uses 131
2.8.1 Applications of mercury and alternatives 131
2.8.2 Current mercury consumption and trade 144
2.8.3 Mercury accumulated in society with miscellaneous uses 144
2.8.4 Mercury-free alternatives 145
2.8.5 Producers of mercury-containing products 147
2.8.6 Collection and treatment of waste 147
2.8.7 Data gaps 147
2.8.8 Mercury mass balance 148
2.9 Summary 148
3 Mercury sources, stocks and contaminated sites 155
3.1 Specific metal mercury stocks 155
3.1.1 Mercury cell chlor-alkali plants 155
3.1.2 Mercury storage at Almadén 155
3.1.3 Mercury held by metals dealers and recyclers 156
3.1.4 Mercury in laboratories, schools and clinics 156
3.1.5 Mercury in Swedish wastes held for eventual disposal 157
3.2 Sources and mass flows of by-product mercury 157
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Mercury use in products and applications and the fate of mercury already circulating in society
3.2.1 Zinc smelting 158
3.2.2 Copper and lead smelting 159
3.2.3 Natural gas purification 160
3.2.4 Combined by-product mercury potential 161
3.3 Mercury in contaminated sites, including potentially recoverable
mercury 161
3.3.1 Decommissioned and operating chlor-alkali facilities 162
3.3.2 Former facilities for production of VCM 165
3.3.3 Manufacturing sites of mercury-containing products & processes 166
3.3.4 Production and waste sites of the chemical industry 167
3.3.5 Mercury mining and smelting sites 168
3.3.6 Other mining and smelting sites 170
3.3.7 Unusual contamination 170
3.4 Summary 170
4 Mercury waste handling 173
4.1 Overview of the waste management situation 173
4.1.1 Mercury quantities in waste 175
4.1.2 Mercury quantities in waste, country examples 176
4.1.3 Transboundary movement of mercury-containing waste 180
4.2 Recycling paths, rates and projections for the future 181
4.2.1 Primary waste streams for recycling 181
4.2.2 Processes used for recycling of mercury 181
4.2.3 Recycling practices and pathways 183
4.2.4 Future trends 191
4.3 Community wide possibilities for the future as regards handling of
mercury-containing waste in products 191
4.4 Summary of waste management and recycling 192
5 National legislation on mercury exceeding EU legislation 195
5.1 Restrictions on mercury in products 195
5.1.1 Legislation in preparation 199
5.2 Mercury waste management legislation 199
6 Policy options for reducing mercury inputs to society and for
improved management of mercury 203
6.1 Selected products and product groups 203
6.2 Impact assessment methodology 203
6.2.1 Policy options 204
6.2.2 Effects on industry 204
6.2.3 Cost-effectiveness analysis 204
6.2.4 Summary across the policy options for all products 205
6.3 Impacts on human health and the environment 205
6.4 Dental amalgam 209
6.4.1 Options for preventing mercury in new products 211
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Mercury use in products and applications and the fate of mercury already circulating in society
6.4.2 Impact and costs of preventing mercury in new products 211
6.4.3 Options for improved management of mercury already in circulation 217
6.4.4 Impacts and costs of improved mercury management 217
6.4.5 Conclusions 220
6.5 Measuring equipment for professional use 221
6.5.1 Main options for reducing or preventing mercury in new products 223
6.5.2 Sphygmomanometers 225
6.5.3 Thermometers 230
6.5.4 Barometers 233
6.5.5 Cost of spill and waste disposal 235
6.5.6 Costs to society from impacts on human health and the
environment 237
6.5.7 Conclusions 238
6.6 Mercury catalysts for polyurethane elastomer production 240
6.6.1 Main options for preventing mercury in new products from entering
the market 241
6.6.2 Main impacts and cost elements of selected policy options 243
6.6.3 Impacts on EU manufacturers and the market 245
6.6.4 Impacts on the end users of PU elastomer part and the users of the
end products 249
6.6.5 Impacts on civil society 250
6.6.6 Conclusions 250
6.7 Mercury porosimetry 252
6.7.1 Main options for reducing or preventing mercury use in porosimetry 253
6.7.2 Impacts on EU manufacturers and the market 254
6.7.3 Impacts on the users of the equipment and waste disposal 255
6.7.4 Costs to society 256
6.7.5 Conclusions 256
6.8 Policy options for mercury in lighthouses 257
6.9 Policy options for mercury compounds used as biocides 257
6.10 Summary across policy options 257
References 261

Annex 1 Substitution level of mercury products and processes

Annex 2 Contacted companies and organisations

Annex 3 Comparison of blood pressure measuring devices

Annex 4 Mercury cell chlor-alkali plants in Europe

Annex 5 Mercury products – production, import and export statistics

Annex 6 Import and export of mercury waste

Annex 7 Questionnaire to Member States
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Mercury use in products and applications and the fate of mercury already circulating in society
Summary
Mercury and its compounds are highly toxic to humans, ecosystems and wildlife. A key aim of
the Community Strategy Concerning Mercury is to reduce mercury levels in the environment
and to reduce human exposure. The European Community has already taken a range of meas-
ures to reduce mercury emissions and uses, but still more remains to be done. With the goal of
constructing and maintaining an overarching and integrated community-wide framework to
properly manage mercury and adequately control its adverse environmental impacts, the com-
munity strategy describes a range of actions for reducing emissions, reducing supply and de-
mand, and addressing surpluses and reservoirs of mercury.
This study strengthens the foundation for further policy decisions by providing:
• an overview of current use of mercury for processes and in products in the European Un-
ion, and of mercury accumulated in society in products, at production facilities, on the
grounds of contaminated sites and within other stocks and inventories;
• an overview of the waste handling situation and recycling paths in the EU, as well as of
national legislation that goes beyond current EU legislation; and
• an assessment of options for reducing major inputs of mercury to society in dental amal-
gams, measuring equipment, mercury catalysts in polyurethanes and mercury porosimetry.
Current use of mercury in products and processes
A detailed split of EU mercury consumption among 41 product groups is shown in Table 0-1
below. In total, more than 60 mercury applications have been assessed in the study. The esti-
mates are based on new information obtained from market actors (personal communications,
sector-specific queries and organisations’ websites), statistics and a comprehensive question-
naire to Member States, Norway and Switzerland (EU27+2).
Mercury “consumption,” as defined for the purposes of this assessment, and dependent on the
area of application, refers to:
• the quantity of liquid mercury applied during the year in question for industrial processes
(e.g. chlor-alkali) or laboratory analyses;
• the quantity of liquid mercury used during the year in question for maintenance of equip-
ment (e.g. lighthouses); or
• the mercury content of products (e.g. batteries) marketed in the EU during the year in ques-
tion, i.e., domestic production plus imports less exports.
Inevitably there are some gray areas where these basic definitions are inadequate to cover com-
plex mercury flows; however, these definitions have proven to be fully adequate for the objec-
tives of this research within the ranges of uncertainty, as noted.
The results of this study are compared with previous estimates of mercury consumption in sec-
tion 2.9. The comparison reveals that for some of the application areas that have been addressed
by existing EU legislation – especially measuring equipment, switches and relays – mercury
consumption has decreased significantly in recent years, whereas mercury consumption for
other major application areas, e.g. chlor-alkali production and dental amalgams, has been more
stable.
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Mercury use in products and applications and the fate of mercury already circulating in society
Table 0-1 Mercury consumption in industrial processes and products in the EU with an indica-
tion of the level of substitution (2007)
Application area Mercury consumption Percentage Level of
Tonnes Hg/year of total substitution
Chlor-alkali production *2 160 - 190 41.2
Light sources 11 - 15 3.1
Fluorescent tubes 3.3 - 4.5 0.9 0
Compact fluorescent tubes 1.9 - 2.6 0.5 1
HID lamps 1.1 - 1.5 0.3 0
Other lamps (non electronics) 1.6 - 2.1 0.4 1
Lamps in electronics 3.5 - 4.5 0.9 1
Batteries 7 - 25 3.8
Mercury button cells 0.3 - 0.8 0.1 2
General purpose batteries 5 - 7 1.4 4
Mercury oxide batteries 2 - 17 2.2 4
Dental amalgams 90 - 110 23.5
Pre-measured capsules 63 - 77 16.5 2
Liquid mercury 27 - 33 7.1 3
Measuring equipment 7 - 17 2.8
Medical thermometers 1 - 3 0.5 3
Other mercury-in-glass thermometers 0.6 - 1.2 0.2 3
Thermometers with dial 0.1 - 0.3 0 4
Manometers 0.03 - 0.3 0.04 4
Barometers 2 - 5 0.82 3
Sphygmomanometers 3 - 6 1.1 3
Hygrometers 0.01 - 0.1 0.01 3
Tensiometers 0.01 - 0.1 0.01 4
Gyrocompasses 0.005 - 0.025 0.004 3
Reference electrodes 0.005 - 0.015 0.002 3
Hanging drop electrodes 0.1 - 0.5 0.1 3
Other uses 0.01 - 0.1 0.01
Switches, relays, etc. 0.3 - 0.8 0.1
Tilt switches for all applications 0.3 - 0.5 0.09 4
Thermoregulators 0.005 - 0.05 0.01 4
Read relays and switches 0.025 - 0.05 0.01 3
Other switches and relays 0.01 - 0.15 0.02 4
Chemicals 28 - 59 10.2
Chemical intermediate and catalyst (excl PU) *1 10 - 20 3.5 2
Catalyst in polyurethane (PU) production 20 - 35 6.5 3
Laboratories and pharmaceutical industry 3 - 10 1.5 3
Preservatives in vaccines and cosmetics 0.1 - 0.5 0.1 3
Preservatives in paints 4 - 10 1.6 4
Disinfectant 1 - 2 0.4 4
Other applications as chemical 0 - 1 0.1 3
Miscellaneous uses 15 - 114 15.2
Porosimetry and pycnometry 10 - 100 12.9 2
Conductors in seam welding machines (mainly 0.2 - 0.5 0.1 3
maintenance)
Mercury slip rings 0.1 - 1 0.1 N
Maintenance of lighthouses 0.8 - 3 0.4 0
Maintenance of bearings 0.05 - 0.5 0.1 0
Gold production (illegal) 3 - 6 1.1
Other applications 0.5 - 3 0.4
Total (round) 320 - 530 100

[See notes on next page]
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