Table Of ContentOptical Remote Sensing of
Ocean Hydrodynamics
Optical Remote Sensing of
Ocean Hydrodynamics
Victor Raizer
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Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Author ......................................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 Introduction ..........................................................................................1
1.1 Definition and Objectives ..........................................................1
1.2 Physics and Techniques of Optical Remote Sensing .................3
1.3 Optical Oceanography: State of Science ...................................9
1.4 Optical Data Acquisition and Analysis ...................................12
Bibliography .......................................................................................15
Chapter 2 Ocean Hydrodynamics .......................................................................19
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................19
2.2 Elements of Fluid Dynamics ...................................................20
2.2.1 Fluid Classification .....................................................20
2.2.2 Fluid Flow ..................................................................20
2.2.3 Basic Equations of Fluid Dynamics ...........................22
2.2.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics .................................23
2.2.5 Important Results of Fluid Dynamics ........................24
2.2.6 Notes on the Literature ...............................................25
References to Section 2.2 ...................................................................25
2.3 W aves .......................................................................................27
2.3.1 Introduction ................................................................27
2.3.2 Surface Waves ............................................................28
2.3.2.1 Deterministic Theory .................................29
2.3.2.2 Stochastic Theory .......................................30
2.3.2.3 Wind-Wave Similarity Concept ..................33
2.3.2.4 Wave Kinetic Equation ...............................35
2.3.3 Internal Waves ............................................................38
2.3.3.1 A Brief History ...........................................38
2.3.3.2 Basic Description ........................................38
2.3.3.3 Basic Mechanisms ......................................40
2.3.3.4 Surface Manifestations ...............................42
2.3.3.5 A Concluded Note.......................................42
2.3.4 Tsunami ......................................................................43
2.3.4.1 Accessibility of Wave Theories to
Tsunami ......................................................43
2.3.4.2 Tsunami Wave Parameters .........................45
2.3.4.3 A Concluding Note .....................................45
2.3.5 Notes on the Literature ...............................................46
v
vi Contents
References to Section 2.3 ...................................................................47
2.4 Currents and Circulation .........................................................53
2.4.1 Surface Currents .........................................................54
2.4.2 Deep Ocean Circulation .............................................55
2.4.3 Ocean Currents from Space .......................................56
References to Section 2.4 ...................................................................57
2.5 Interactions ..............................................................................58
2.5.1 Wave-Wave Interactions .............................................58
2.5.2 Wave-Current Interaction ...........................................60
2.5.3 Surface–Internal Wave Interaction ............................61
References to Section 2.5 ...................................................................63
2.6 Turbulence ...............................................................................64
2.6.1 Introduction ................................................................64
2.6.2 Kolmogorov Law ........................................................65
2.6.3 Weak Turbulence ........................................................66
2.6.4 Strong Turbulence ......................................................67
2.6.5 Wake Turbulence (Turbulent Wake) ...........................69
References to Section 2.6 ...................................................................71
2.7 Instabilities ..............................................................................73
References to Section 2.7 ...................................................................74
2.8 Wave Breaking ........................................................................75
2.8.1 Introduction ................................................................75
2.8.2 Hydrodynamic Characterization ................................76
2.8.3 Spectral Characterization ...........................................78
References to Section 2.8 ...................................................................79
2.9 Hydrodynamics of Explosion ..................................................80
2.9.1 Basic Characterization ...............................................80
2.9.2 Sequence of Events .....................................................81
2.9.3 Surface Displacement .................................................81
2.9.4 Bubble Motion ............................................................82
2.9.5 Concluded Note ..........................................................83
References to Section 2.9 ...................................................................84
2.10 S ummary .................................................................................85
Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Ocean Optics ..........................................................87
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................87
3.2 O ptical Fields and Quantities ..................................................88
3.2.1 Maxwell Equations .....................................................88
3.2.2 The Wave Equation, the Velocity of Light, and
the Propagation Constant ...........................................90
3.2.3 From Maxwell Equations to Geometrical Optics ......91
3.2.4 Light Propagation in Scattering Media ......................93
3.3 R adiometry, Photometry, and Quantities ................................98
3.4 T he Radiative Transfer Equation ...........................................100
Contents vii
3.5 Optical Properties of Water ...................................................101
3.5.1 The Index of Refraction ...........................................102
3.5.2 Absorption ................................................................104
3.5.3 Scattering..................................................................105
3.5.4 Albedo ......................................................................107
3.5.5 Radiance and Reflectance ........................................109
3.6 Polarization ............................................................................112
3.6.1 The Polarization Ellipse ...........................................112
3.6.2 The Stokes Polarization Parameters .........................113
3.6.3 The Mueller Matrix ..................................................115
3.6.4 Optical Polarimetry and Remote Sensing ................116
3.7 Propagation in Atmosphere ...................................................116
3.7.1 Elements of Atmospheric Optics ..............................116
3.7.2 Atmospheric Turbulence ..........................................119
3.7.3 Imaging through Turbulence ....................................121
3.8 Summary ...............................................................................123
References ........................................................................................124
Chapter 4 Optical Remote Sensing Technologies .............................................133
4.1 I ntroduction ...........................................................................133
4.2 Optical Payload Classification ...............................................134
4.2.1 Aerial Photography ..................................................135
4.2.2 Imaging Spectroscopy ..............................................136
4.2.3 Multispectral Imagery ..............................................136
4.2.4 Hyperspectral Imagery .............................................137
4.2.5 Light Detection and Ranging ...................................138
4.2.6 Laser Raman Spectroscopy ......................................139
4.2.7 Fourier Transform Spectroscopy ..............................139
4.2.8 Spectrometers and Radiometers ...............................140
4.2.9 Thermal Infrared Imagery .......................................140
4.2.10 Other Sensors ...........................................................141
4.3 Satellite Imaging Capability ..................................................142
4.3.1 Wave Phenomena .....................................................142
4.3.2 Coral Reefs ...............................................................144
4.3.3 Bioproductivity .........................................................145
4.3.4 Algal Bloom .............................................................145
4.3.5 Marine Pollution .......................................................146
4.4 S ummary ...............................................................................148
Bibliography .....................................................................................149
Chapter 5 Satellite Optical Imagery .................................................................151
5.1 I ntroduction ...........................................................................151
5.2 Brief History ..........................................................................151
viii Contents
5.3 Satellite Characteristics .........................................................154
5.3.1 Types of Optical Sensors ..........................................154
5.3.2 Earth Coordinate Reference System ........................155
5.3.3 Orbits and Swaths .....................................................157
5.3.4 Resolutions ...............................................................160
5.3.5 Revisit Time .............................................................161
5.4 Image Formation ...................................................................161
5.5 Quantitative Assessment and Management ...........................163
5.6 Ocean Observation Strategy ..................................................164
5.7 Summary ...............................................................................166
References ........................................................................................166
Chapter 6 Methods of Digital Analysis and Interpretation ...............................169
6.1 Introduction ...........................................................................169
6.2 Variogram ..............................................................................170
6.3 Fourier Transform .................................................................170
6.3.1 Basic Definitions ......................................................171
6.3.2 Fast Fourier Transform .............................................172
6.3.3 Applications in Remote Sensing ..............................174
6.4 Wavelet ..................................................................................176
6.4.1 Basic Definition ........................................................177
6.4.2 Applications ..............................................................180
6.5 Fractal ....................................................................................181
6.5.1 Self-Similarity ..........................................................182
6.5.2 The Fractal Dimension .............................................182
6.5.3 Multifractal Analysis ................................................183
6.5.4 Wavelet-Based Fractal Analysis (WFA) ...................185
6.5.5 Applications ..............................................................186
6.6 Fusion ....................................................................................187
6.6.1 Average Method (AM) .............................................188
6.6.2 Intensity–Hue–Saturation Method (HIS) .................188
6.6.3 Multiplicative Technique (MT) ................................188
6.6.4 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) .....................189
6.6.5 Brovey Transform (BT) ............................................189
6.6.6 Frequency Filtering Methods (FFM) .......................190
6.6.7 Wavelet-Based Fusion (WTF) ..................................190
6.6.8 Pyramid ....................................................................191
6.6.9 Hybrid Fusion ...........................................................191
6.6.10 Ehlers Fusion ............................................................191
6.6.11 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) ............................192
6.6.12 Applications ..............................................................193
6.6.13 Concluding Note .......................................................193
6.7 T exture ...................................................................................194
6.7.1 Texture Analysis .......................................................195
6.7.1.1 Texture Classification ...............................195
Contents ix
6.7.1.2 Texture Segmentation ...............................195
6.7.1.3 Shape from Texture ...................................196
6.7.1.4 Texture Synthesis ......................................196
6.7.1.5 Compression .............................................197
6.7.2 Texture Models .........................................................197
6.7.2.1 Fourier Series ............................................197
6.7.2.2 Markov Random Field Model ...................197
6.7.2.3 Fractal Models ..........................................198
6.7.2.4 Mosaic Models ..........................................200
6.7.2.5 Mixture Models ........................................200
6.8 Feature Extraction .................................................................201
6.8.1 Binary Thresholding ................................................201
6.8.2 Edge Detection .........................................................201
6.8.3 Fourier Transform ....................................................202
6.8.4 Gabor Filter ..............................................................202
6.8.5 Markov Random Field ..............................................203
6.8.6 Digital Wavelet Transform .......................................203
6.8.7 Principal Component Analysis .................................204
6.8.8 Moment-Based Feature Descriptors .........................204
6.8.9 Singular-Value Decomposition .................................205
6.8.10 Autocorrelation Function .........................................206
6.8.11 Decorrelation Stretch ...............................................206
6.8.12 Co-occurrence Matrix ..............................................207
6.8.13 Support Vector Machines .........................................209
6.9 Fisher Vector ..........................................................................210
6.10 Summary ...............................................................................211
References ........................................................................................211
Chapter 7 Advanced Optical Observations .......................................................225
7.1 A Brief Historical Survey ......................................................225
7.2 S pectral Signatures ................................................................227
7.2.1 Introduction. Wave Spectra ......................................227
7.2.2 Enhanced Spectra .....................................................230
7.2.3 Signature Classification ............................................231
7.2.4 Summary ..................................................................232
7.3 Interactions ............................................................................234
7.3.1 Introductory Remark ................................................234
7.3.2 Diagram Technique ..................................................234
7.3.3 Examples ..................................................................236
7.3.4 Summary ..................................................................239
7.4 Wave Breaking Environment ................................................239
7.4.1 Introduction ..............................................................239
7.4.2 Metrics ......................................................................240
7.4.3 Morphological and Statistical Processing ................240
7.4.4 Selected Results ........................................................242
