Optical Imaging and Microscopy: Techniques and Advanced Systems

401 Pages·2003·11.005 MB·English

by  S. Inoué (auth.), Peter Török, Fu-Jen Kao (eds.)

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Peter To¨ro¨k Fu-Jen Kao (Eds.)
Optical Imaging
and Microscopy
Techniques and Advanced Systems
With260Figures
Including25inColor
1 3
PeterTo¨ro¨k Fu-JenKao
ImperialCollegeLondon DepartmentofPhysics
DepartmentofPhysics NationalSunYat-senUniversity
BlackettLaboratory 70LienHaiRoad
PrinceConsortRoad Kaohsiung80424
LondonSW72BW Taiwan
UnitedKingdom E-mail:[email protected]
E-mail:[email protected]
ISSN0342-4111
ISBN978-3-662-14381-0
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData:Opticalimagingandmicroscopy:techniquesandad-
vancedsystems/PeterTörök,Fu-JenKao(eds.).p.cm.–(Springerseriesinopticalsciences;87)Includesbib-
liographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN 978-3-662-14381-0 ISBN 978-3-540-46022-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-46022-0
1.Optoelectronicdevices.2.Microscopy.
3.Imagingsystems.I.To¨ro¨k,Peter,1965–.II.Kao,Fu-Jen,1961–.III.Series.TA1750.O542003 621.36’7–dc21
2003041225
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Preface
Themotivationtocollectcontributions fromawidevarietyofsubjectsincontem-
poraryoptics, centered aroundoptical imaging, originates fromtwoideas. First,it
is easy to recognise that certain fields of contemporary optics have been develop-
ing in quite a parallel manner. Sometimes workers of the different fields discover
each other’s contributions, but mostly they do not. One of our major goals is to
showhowcloselythesecontributionsareinter-related.Suchanexampleisthede-
velopmentofscanning/confocalopticalmicroscopyandopticaldatastorage.Inthe
former, imaging in the classical sense, occurs by scanning a tightly focused laser
beamoverthesample.Inopticaldatastorageimagingdoesnotoccurastheaimis
todetectpits,ratherthantoimagethem.Nevertheless,theopticalsystemsofthese
two arrangements have striking resemblance and hence their governing equations
arepracticallythesame.Thesecondmotivationofthisbookistocollectcontribu-
tionsfromimagingrelatedsubjectsthatwerenotpreviouslypublishedinthisform
ortheyaredifficulttoaccess.Suchexamplesareachapteronwhitelightinterferom-
etry,surfaceplasmonmicroscopyorthecharacterisationofhighnumericalaperture
microscopeobjectivelenses.
We are extremely pleased that we have contributions in this book fromthe in-
ternationalleadersofindividualfields.Ithasbeenourprivilegetoworkwiththese
authorsandwewouldliketotakethisopportunitytothankthemall.
Itnowremainstoacknowledgethosewhocontributionmadethepublicationof
thisbookpossible.FirstandforemostwewishtothankMissJaneyLinandMrEoin
Phillipsfortheirworkonthemanuscript.Theyspentendlesshourscorrectingtypo-
graphicalerrors,andputtingthemanuscriptsintoaformatthatwassuitableforpub-
lication.WearealsogratefultoMrSebastianRahtzwhoansweredallourquestions
regarding LATEX; without his help this book would have looked fairly different. Dr
AngelaLaheeofSpringerVerlagwaskindenoughtoofferherhelpthroughoutthis
projectthatweallbutoverused.WewouldliketoacknowledgetheNationalScience
CouncilofTaiwanforgeneroussupporttowardsthepublicationofthisbook.
TheEditorshopethattheReaderwillderiveasmuchjoyfromreadingthecon-
tributionsinthisbookaswedidwhileworkingonit.
LondonandKaohsiung, PeterTo¨ro¨k
January2003 Fu-JenKao
Contents
PartI.HighApertureOpticalSystemsandSuper-Resolution
1 ExploringLivingCellsandMolecularDynamics
withPolarizedLightMicroscopy
S.Inoue´............................................................ 3
1.1 Introduction................................................... 3
1.2 EquipmentRequirement ........................................ 3
1.3 BiologicalExamples ........................................... 8
1.4 Video-EnhancedMicroscopy .................................... 12
1.5 TheLCPol-Scope ............................................. 13
1.6 TheCentrifugePolarizingMicroscope............................. 14
1.7 PolarizedFluorescenceofGreenFluorescentProtein ................ 17
1.8 ConcludingRemarks ........................................... 18
References ......................................................... 19
2 CharacterizingHighNumericalApertureMicroscopeObjectiveLenses
RimasJusˇkaitis ..................................................... 21
2.1 Introduction................................................... 21
2.1.1 Disclaimer.............................................. 21
2.1.2 ObjectiveLensBasics .................................... 22
2.2 PointSpreadFunction .......................................... 23
2.2.1 Fibre-OpticInterferometer ................................ 24
2.2.2 PSFMeasurements ...................................... 25
2.3 ChromaticAberrations.......................................... 28
2.3.1 Apparatus .............................................. 28
2.3.2 AxialShift ............................................. 30
2.4 PupilFunction................................................. 31
2.4.1 Phase-ShiftingInterferometry.............................. 32
2.4.2 ZernikePolynomialFit ................................... 33
2.4.3 Restorationofa3-DPointSpreadFunction .................. 36
2.4.4 EmptyAperture ......................................... 37
2.5 Esoterica ..................................................... 39
2.5.1 TemperatureVariations ................................... 39
2.5.2 Apodization ............................................ 40
2.5.3 PolarizationEffects ...................................... 42
VIII Contents
2.6 Conclusion.................................................... 42
References ......................................................... 43
3 DiffractiveRead-OutofOpticalDiscs
JosephJ.M.Braat,PeterDirksen,AugustusJ.E.M.Janssen ................ 45
3.1 Introduction................................................... 45
3.2 HistoricOverviewofVideoandAudioRecording
onOpticalMedia .............................................. 45
3.2.1 TheEarlyOpticalVideoSystem ........................... 47
3.2.2 TheOriginoftheCD-System.............................. 48
3.2.3 TheRoadTowardstheDVD-System........................ 49
3.3 OverviewoftheOpticalPrinciplesoftheCD-andtheDVD-System.... 50
3.3.1 OpticalRead-OutoftheHigh-FrequencyInformationSignal ... 50
3.3.2 OpticalErrorSignalsforFocusingandRadialTracking
oftheInformation ....................................... 55
3.3.3 ExamplesofLightPaths .................................. 58
3.4 RadialTrackingforDVD........................................ 60
3.4.1 ADiffractionModelfortheDPDandDTDTrackingSignal .... 60
3.4.2 TheInfluenceofDetectorMisalignmentontheTrackingSignal . 62
3.4.3 TheDTDTrackingSignalfortheDVD-System............... 65
3.4.4 TheDTD2andtheDTD4SignalinthePresenceofDefocus.... 66
3.5 CompatibilityIssuesfortheDVD-andtheCD-System ............... 68
3.5.1 TheSubstrate-InducedSphericalAberration ................. 69
3.5.2 TheEffectiveOpticalTransferFunction ..................... 73
3.5.3 TheTwo-WavelengthLightPath ........................... 74
3.6 EfficientCalculationSchemefortheDetectorSignal................. 75
3.6.1 OpticalConfigurationandtheFFT-Approach................. 75
3.6.2 TheAnalyticApproach................................... 77
3.6.3 TheHarmonicComponentsoftheDetectorSignal ............ 80
3.6.4 TheRepresentationoftheFunctionFm,n(x,y) ................ 81
3.6.5 OrthogonalityinPupilandImagePlane ..................... 83
3.7 Conclusion.................................................... 84
References ......................................................... 84
4 SuperresolutioninScanningOpticalSystems
E.RoyPike,DeephChana,PelagiaNeocleous,Shi-hongJiang ............. 87
4.1 Introduction................................................... 87
4.2 DirectMethods ................................................ 88
4.2.1 PendryLens ............................................ 88
4.2.2 Kino’sSolidImmersionLens.............................. 91
4.2.3 ToraldodiFrancia’sApodisingMasks ...................... 91
4.3 InverseMethodsandImage-PlaneMasks .......................... 94
4.4 OpticalSystemsforScanningImaging ............................ 96
4.4.1 AnalyticalResults ....................................... 98
4.4.2 NumericalResults .......................................101
Contents IX
4.5 TheComparisonofNon-linearOpticalScanningSystems ............104
4.6 High-ApertureImage-PlaneMasks ...............................107
References .........................................................109
5 DepthofFieldControlinIncoherentHybridImagingSystems
SherifA.Sherif,W.ThomasCathey.....................................111
5.1 Introduction...................................................111
5.2 HybridImagingSystems ........................................111
5.2.1 DigitalPost-Processing ...................................112
5.2.2 NewMetricforDefocusedImageBlurring...................112
5.3 ExtendedDepthofField ........................................113
5.3.1 DesignofaRectangularEDFPhasePlate....................114
5.3.2 PerformanceofaLogarithmicPhasePlate ...................119
5.3.3 PerformanceComparisonofDifferentEDFPhasePlates .......125
5.4 ReducedDepthofField .........................................128
5.4.1 DesignofaRectangularRDFPhasePlate ...................130
5.4.2 PerformanceofaRectangularRDFPhaseGrating ............132
5.5 CCDEffectonDepthofFieldControl.............................136
5.5.1 Charge-CoupledDevice-LimitedPSF .......................136
5.5.2 CCDEffectonDepthofFieldExtension ....................136
5.5.3 CCDEffectonDepthofFieldReduction ....................138
5.6 Conclusions...................................................140
References .........................................................141
6 WavefrontCodingFluorescenceMicroscopy
UsingHighApertureLenses
MatthewR.Arnison,CarolJ.Cogswell,ColinJ.R.Sheppard,PeterTo¨ro¨k....143
6.1 ExtendedDepthofFieldMicroscopy..............................143
6.1.1 MethodsforExtendingtheDepthofField ...................144
6.2 HighApertureFluorescenceMicroscopyImaging ...................146
6.2.1 ExperimentalMethod ....................................147
6.2.2 PSFandOTFResults.....................................149
6.2.3 BiologicalImagingResults................................151
6.3 WavefrontCodingTheory .......................................152
6.3.1 DerivationoftheCubicPhaseFunction .....................153
6.3.2 ParaxialModel..........................................153
6.3.3 HighAperturePSFModel ................................154
6.3.4 HighApertureOTFModel ................................156
6.3.5 DefocusedOTFandPSF..................................157
6.3.6 SimulationResults.......................................158
6.3.7 Discussion..............................................162
6.4 Conclusion....................................................164
References .........................................................165
X Contents
PartII.NonlinearTechniquesinOpticalImaging
7 NonlinearOpticalMicroscopy
Franc¸oisLagugne´ Labarthet,YuenRonShen.............................169
7.1 Introduction...................................................169
7.2 SecondHarmonicNonlinearMicroscopy ..........................170
7.2.1 BasicPrincipleofSHG ...................................170
7.2.2 CoherenceEffectsinSHMicroscopy .......................174
7.2.3 ScanningNear-FieldNonlinearSecondHarmonicGeneration...175
7.3 SumFrequencyGenerationMicroscopy ...........................177
7.3.1 BasicPrincipleofSumFrequencyGeneration................177
7.3.2 Far-FieldSFGMicroscopy ................................178
7.3.3 Near-FieldSFGImaging..................................179
7.4 ThirdHarmonicGenerationMicroscopy ...........................180
7.5 CoherentAnti-StokesRamanScatteringMicroscopy.................182
7.6 MultiphotonExcitedFluorescenceMicroscopy .....................184
7.6.1 Two-PhotonExcitedFluorescence(TPEF)Microscopy ........185
7.6.2 TPEFFar-FieldMicroscopyUsingMultipointExcitation.......188
7.6.3 4-PiConfocalTPEFMicroscopy ...........................189
7.6.4 SimultaneousSHG/TPEFMicroscopy ......................190
7.6.5 Three-Photon-ExcitedFluorescenceMicroscopy..............191
7.6.6 Stimulated-Emission-Depletion(STED)
FluorescenceMicroscopy .................................192
7.7 Conclusion....................................................193
References .........................................................193
8 ParametricNonlinearOpticalTechniquesinMicroscopy
M.Mu¨ller,G.J.Brakenhoff............................................197
8.1 Introduction...................................................197
8.2 NonlinearOptics–ParametricProcesses...........................198
8.2.1 Introduction ............................................198
8.2.2 OpticalSectioningCapability..............................200
8.2.3 SecondHarmonicGeneration(SHG)........................200
8.2.4 ThirdHarmonicGeneration(THG) .........................201
8.2.5 CoherentAnti-StokesRamanScattering(CARS) .............202
8.3 ThirdHarmonicGeneration(THG)Microscopy.....................204
8.3.1 GeneralCharacteristics ...................................204
8.3.2 SelectedApplications ....................................205
8.3.3 Summary...............................................209
8.4 CoherentAnti-StokesRamanScattering(CARS)Microscopy .........209
8.4.1 GeneralCharacteristics ...................................209
8.4.2 MultiplexCARS ........................................210
8.4.3 Summary...............................................214
Contents XI
8.5 Conclusion....................................................214
References .........................................................216
9 Second Harmonic Generation Microscopy Versus Third Harmonic
GenerationMicroscopyinBiologicalTissues
Chi-KuangSun .....................................................219
9.1 Introduction...................................................219
9.2 SHGMicroscopy ..............................................220
9.3 Bio-PhotonicCrystalEffectinBiologicalSHGMicroscopy...........221
9.4 THGMicroscopy ..............................................228
9.5 Conclusion....................................................230
References .........................................................231
PartIII.MiscellaneousMethodsinOpticalImaging
10 AdaptiveOptics
J.ChrisDainty......................................................235
10.1 Introduction...................................................235
10.2 HistoricalBackground ..........................................236
10.3 StrehlRatioandWavefrontVariance ..............................239
10.4 WavefrontSensing .............................................240
10.5 DeformableMirrorsandOtherCorrectiveDevices ..................243
10.6 TheControlSystem ............................................245
10.7 LowCostAOSystems ..........................................248
10.8 CurrentResearchIssuesinAstronomicalAdaptiveOptics ............250
10.9 AdaptiveOpticsandtheEye .....................................252
References .........................................................254
11 Low-CoherenceInterferenceMicroscopy
C.J.R.Sheppard,M.Roy..............................................257
11.1 Introduction...................................................257
11.2 GeometryoftheInterferenceMicroscope ..........................259
11.3 PrincipleofLow-CoherenceInterferometry ........................261
11.4 AnalysisofWhite-LightInterferenceFringes.......................263
11.4.1 DigitalFilteringAlgorithms ...............................264
11.4.2 PhaseShiftAlgorithms ...................................265
11.5 SpatialCoherenceEffects .......................................266
11.6 ExperimentalSetup ............................................267
11.6.1 TheIlluminationSystem..................................267
11.6.2 TheInterferometer.......................................267
11.7 ExperimentalResults ...........................................269
11.8 DiscussionandConclusion ......................................271
References .........................................................272