Optical Communications Essentials

2004·2.27 MB·English

by  Gerd Keiser

Contents Page: ix
Preface Page: xvii
Acknowledgments Page: xix
Chapter 1. Basic Concepts of Communication Systems Page: 1
1.1. Definitions Page: 2
1.2. Analog Signal Formats Page: 4
1.3. Digital Signal Formats Page: 6
1.4. Digitization of Analog Signals Page: 7
1.5. Electromagnetic Spectrum Page: 9
1.5.1. Telecommunication Spectral Band Page: 9
1.5.2. Optical Communications Band Page: 10
1.6. Transmission Channels Page: 11
1.6.1. Carrier Waves Page: 11
1.6.2. Baseband Signals Page: 12
1.7. Signal Multiplexing Page: 12
1.8. SONET/SDH Multiplexing Hierarchy Page: 14
1.9. Decibels Page: 15
1.10. Simulation Programs Page: 18
1.11. Summary Page: 19
Further Reading Page: 20
Chapter 2. Optical Communication Systems Overview Page: 21
2.1. Motivations for Using Optical Fiber Systems Page: 21
2.2. Evolution of Optical Communications Page: 22
2.3. Elements of an Optical Link Page: 26
2.4. WDM Concept Page: 28
2.5. Applications of Optical Fiber Links Page: 29
2.6. Optical Networking and Switching Page: 30
2.7. Standards for Optical Communications Page: 31
2.8. Summary Page: 32
Further Reading Page: 33
Chapter 3. The Behavior of Light Page: 35
3.1. The Dual Wave-Particle Nature of Light Page: 35
3.2. The Speed of Light Page: 36
3.3. Measuring Properties of Light Page: 36
3.4. Refractive Index Page: 37
3.5. Reflection and Refraction Page: 38
3.6. Polarization Page: 40
3.6.1. Unpolarized Light Page: 40
3.6.2. Polarizers Page: 42
3.6.3. Faraday Rotators Page: 42
3.6.4. Double-Refractive Crystals Page: 43
3.7. Summary Page: 44
Further Reading Page: 45
Chapter 4. Optical Fibers Page: 47
4.1. Light Propagation in Fibers Page: 47
4.2. Optical Fiber Modes Page: 49
4.3. Variations of Fiber Types Page: 50
4.4. Single-Mode Fibers Page: 52
4.5. Optical Fiber Attenuation Page: 52
4.6. Fiber Information Capacity Page: 55
4.7. Optical Fiber Standards Page: 58
4.8. Specialty Fibers Page: 60
4.8.1. Erbium-Doped Fiber Page: 60
4.9. Summary Page: 63
Further Reading Page: 64
Chapter 5. Optical Fiber Cables Page: 67
5.1. Fiber-Related Design Issues Page: 67
5.1.1. Fiber Strength Page: 68
5.1.2. Dielectric Nature of Fibers Page: 68
5.1.3. Small Size and Low Weight Page: 68
5.2 Cable Materials and Structures Page: 69
5.2.1. Tight-Buffered Fiber Cable Page: 70
5.2.2. Loose-Tube Cable Configuration Page: 71
5.2.3. Ribbon Cable Page: 72
5.3. Indoor Cables Page: 72
5.3.1. Indoor Cable Designs Page: 72
5.3.2. Indoor Cable Applications Page: 74
5.4. Outdoor Cables Page: 75
5.4.1. Aerial Cable Page: 75
5.4.2. Armored Cable Page: 77
5.4.3. Underwater Cable Page: 77
5.4.4. Military Cable Page: 78
5.5. Fiber and Jacket Color Coding Page: 78
5.6. Installation Methods Page: 80
5.6.1. Direct-Burial Installations Page: 80
5.6.2. Pulling into Ducts Page: 82
5.6.3. Air-Assisted Installation Page: 83
5.6.4. Aerial Installation Page: 84
5.6.5. Submarine Installation Page: 85
5.7. Summary Page: 85
Further Reading Page: 86
Chapter 6. Light Sources and Transmitters Page: 87
6.1. General Source Characteristics Page: 87
6.1.1. Materials Page: 87
6.1.2. Spectral Output Width Page: 89
6.1.3. Modulation Speed Page: 89
6.2. LEDs Page: 90
6.2.1. Principles of Operation Page: 90
6.2.2. Surface Emitters Page: 91
6.2.3. Edge Emitters Page: 92
6.3. Laser Diodes Page: 93
6.3.1. Fabry-Perot Laser Page: 96
6.3.2. Distributed-Feedback Laser Page: 97
6.3.3. Tunable Lasers Page: 98
6.3.4. Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser Page: 98
6.3.5. Pump Lasers Page: 99
6.4. Optical Transmitters Page: 99
6.4.1. LED Transmitters Page: 99
6.4.2. Laser Transmitters Page: 100
6.4.3. Transmitter Controllers Page: 101
6.4.4. Transmitter Packages Page: 101
6.5. External Modulators Page: 102
6.6. Summary Page: 104
Further Reading Page: 105
Chapter 7. Photodiodes and Receivers Page: 107
7.1. The pin Photodiode Page: 107
7.1.1. Operation of a pin Photodiode Page: 108
7.1.2. Photodetector Materials Page: 109
7.1.3. Quantum Efficiency Page: 110
7.1.4. Responsivity Page: 110
7.1.5. Speed of Response Page: 111
7.1.6. Bandwidth Page: 112
7.2. Avalanche Photodiodes Page: 113
7.3. Comparisons of Photodetectors Page: 113
7.4. Optical Receiver Page: 114
7.4.1. Photodetector Noise Page: 114
7.4.2. Noise Sources Page: 115
7.5. Summary Page: 116
Further Reading Page: 117
Chapter 8. Connectors and Splices Page: 119
8.1. Source-to-Fiber Power Coupling Page: 119
8.1.1. Source Output Pattern Page: 120
8.1.2. Power Coupling Calculation Page: 121
8.1.3. Lensed Fibers Page: 122
8.1.4. End-Face Reflections Page: 123
8.2. Mechanics of Fiber Joints Page: 124
8.2.1. Mechanical Misalignments Page: 124
8.2.2. Misalignment Effects Page: 124
8.3. Fiber-Related Losses Page: 126
8.4. End-Face Preparation Page: 127
8.4.1. Grinding and Polishing Page: 127
8.4.2. Controlled Fracture Page: 128
8.4.3. End-Face Quality Page: 128
8.5. Optical Connector Features Page: 129
8.5.1. Design Requirements Page: 130
8.5.2. Connector Components Page: 130
8.6. Optical Connector Types Page: 131
8.7. Optical Splices Page: 137
8.7.1. Splicing Issues Page: 138
8.7.2. Splicing Methods Page: 139
8.8. Summary Page: 140
Further Reading Page: 141
Chapter 9. Passive Optical Components Page: 143
9.1. Optical Couplers Page: 144
9.1.1. Basic 2 × 2 Coupler Page: 144
9.1.2. Coupler Performance Page: 145
9.1.3. Tap Coupler Page: 148
9.1.4. Star Coupler Page: 148
9.1.5. Mach-Zehnder Interferometer Page: 149
9.2. Isolators and Circulators Page: 150
9.2.1. Optical Isolators Page: 150
9.2.2. Optical Circulators Page: 152
9.3. Dielectric Thin-Film Filters Page: 153
9.4. Gratings Page: 156
9.4.1. Grating Principle Page: 156
9.4.2. Fiber Bragg Gratings Page: 157
9.5. Summary Page: 159
Further Reading Page: 160
Chapter 10. Active Optical Components Page: 161
10.1. Overview of Major Components Page: 161
10.2. MEMS Technology Page: 163
10.3. Variable Optical Attenuators Page: 165
10.4. Tunable Optical Filters Page: 166
10.5. Dynamic Gain Equalizers Page: 168
10.6. Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers Page: 169
10.7. Polarization Controllers Page: 170
10.8. Chromatic Dispersion Compensators Page: 171
10.9. Summary Page: 172
Further Reading Page: 173
Chapter 11. Optical Amplifiers Page: 175
11.1. Basic Applications Page: 176
11.2. Amplification Mechanism Page: 177
11.3. Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers Page: 178
11.3.1. SOA Construction Page: 178
11.3.2. Basic SOA Parameters Page: 179
11.4. Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA) Page: 182
11.4.1. Amplification Mechanism Page: 182
11.4.2. EDFA Configurations Page: 184
11.4.3. EDFA Pump Lasers Page: 184
11.4.4. EDFA Noise Page: 186
11.4.5. Operation in the L-Band Page: 188
11.5. Raman Amplification Page: 189
11.6. Wavelength Conversion Page: 190
11.6.1. Optical-Gating Wavelength Converters Page: 192
11.6.2. Wave-Mixing Wavelength Converters Page: 193
11.7. Summary Page: 194
Further Reading Page: 195
Chapter 12. Wavelength Division Multiplexing Page: 197
12.1. Operational Principles of WDM Page: 198
12.1.1. WDM Operating Regions Page: 199
12.1.2. WDM Standards Page: 200
12.1.3. Generic WDM Link Page: 202
12.2. Multiplexers for WDM Page: 203
12.2.1. Thin-Film Filters Page: 203
12.2.2. Fiber Bragg Gratings Page: 204
12.2.3. Arrayed Waveguide Gratings Page: 206
12.2.4. Diffraction Gratings Page: 208
12.2.5. Interleavers Page: 210
12.3. Wavelength Lockers Page: 212
12.4. Summary Page: 214
Further Reading Page: 215
Chapter 13. Constructing the WDM Network Puzzle Page: 217
13.1. Network Requirements Page: 217
13.1.1. Wideband Long-Haul WDM Network Page: 218
13.1.2. Narrowband Metro WDM Network Page: 219
13.2. Component Performance in WDM Links Page: 221
13.2.1. DWDM Optical Transmitters Page: 221
13.2.2. CWDM Optical Transmitters Page: 222
13.2.3. Wavelength Multiplexing Devices Page: 223
13.2.4. Interleavers Page: 224
13.2.5. Wideband Optical Amplifiers Page: 225
13.2.6. Metro Optical Amplifiers Page: 226
13.2.7. Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer Page: 227
13.2.8. Chromatic Dispersion Compensation Page: 227
13.2.9. Polarization Mode Dispersion Compensation Page: 228
13.3. WDM Network Applications Page: 228
13.3.1. DWDM Networks Page: 228
13.3.2. CWDM Networks Page: 229
13.4. Performance Monitoring Needs Page: 230
13.5. Summary Page: 231
Further Reading Page: 231
Chapter 14. Performance Measures Page: 233
14.1. Digital Link Performance Page: 233
14.1.1. Bit Error Rate Page: 234
14.1.2. Eye Diagrams Page: 234
14.2. Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio Page: 237
14.3. Analog Link Performance Page: 239
14.3.1. Carrier-to-Noise Ratio (CNR) Page: 239
14.3.2. Limiting Conditions on CNR Page: 241
14.4. Measuring Performance Parameters Page: 243
14.5. Summary Page: 244
Further Reading Page: 244
Chapter 15. Performance Impairments Page: 247
15.1. Impairment Effects Page: 247
15.2. Chromatic Dispersion Page: 248
15.3. Dispersion Compensation Page: 250
15.3.1. Dispersion-Compensating Fiber Page: 250
15.3.2. Bragg Grating Compensators Page: 252
15.4. Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD) Page: 253
15.5. Nonlinear Effects Page: 254
15.5.1. Effective Length and Area Page: 255
15.5.2. Stimulated Raman Scattering Page: 256
15.5.3. Stimulated Brillouin Scattering Page: 257
15.5.4. Self-Phase Modulation and Cross-Phase Modulation Page: 258
15.5.5. Four-Wave Mixing Page: 259
15.6. Summary Page: 260
Further Reading Page: 261
Chapter 16. Optical Link Design Page: 263
16.1. System Considerations Page: 263
16.1.1. System Requirements Page: 264
16.1.2. Link Margin Page: 265
16.1.3. Power Penalties Page: 265
16.2. Link Power Budget Page: 266
16.2.1. Power Budgeting Process Page: 267
16.2.2. Fast Ethernet LAN Example Page: 268
16.2.3. SONET/SDH Link Example Page: 269
16.2.4. DWDM Link Example Page: 271
16.3. Rise-Time Budget Page: 271
16.3.1. Basic Rise Times Page: 272
16.3.2. Multimode LAN Link Rise Time Page: 274
16.3.3. SONET Link Rise Time Page: 275
16.4. Line Coding Page: 275
16.4.1. NRZ and RZ Signal Formats Page: 276
16.4.2. Block Codes Page: 277
16.5. Forward Error Correction Page: 277
16.6. Modeling and Simulation Tools Page: 278
16.7. Summary Page: 279
Further Reading Page: 280
Chapter 17. Optical Networks Page: 281
17.1. General Network Concepts Page: 281
17.1.1. Types of Networks Page: 282
17.1.2. Network Terminology Page: 283
17.1.3. Network Layers Page: 285
17.1.4. Optical Layer Page: 287
17.2. SONET/SDH Page: 287
17.2.1. SONET Transmission Formats Page: 288
17.2.2. Optical Interfaces Page: 290
17.2.3. SONET/SDH Rings Page: 292
17.2.4. SONET/SDH Networks Page: 296
17.3. Optical Ethernet Page: 298
17.4. IP over WDM Page: 298
17.5. Optical Transport Networks (OTNs) Page: 299
17.5.1. Optical Network Services Page: 300
17.5.2. OTN Standards Page: 300
17.5.3. Wavelength Routing Page: 300
17.6. FTTx Page: 301
17.7. Summary Page: 302
Further Reading Page: 303
Chapter 18. Network Management Page: 305
18.1. Management Architecture Page: 306
18.2. Basic Management Functions Page: 307
18.2.1. Performance Management Page: 308
18.2.2. Configuration Management Page: 308
18.2.3. Accounting Management Page: 308
18.2.4. Fault Management Page: 309
18.2.5. Security Management Page: 310
18.3. Management Protocols Page: 311
18.3.1. SNMP Page: 311
18.3.2. RMON Page: 311
18.4. Optical Layer Management Page: 312
18.5. Element Management Page: 315
18.5.1. Error Monitoring Page: 315
18.5.2. Wavelength Management Page: 316
18.5.3. Element Monitoring Page: 316
18.6. Optical Service Channel Page: 317
18.7. Summary Page: 318
Further Reading Page: 319
Chapter 19. Test and Measurement Page: 321
19.1. Measurement Standards Page: 322
19.2. Basic Test Equipment Page: 324
19.3. Optical Power Measurements Page: 325
19.3.1. Definition of Optical Power Page: 325
19.3.2. Optical Power Meters Page: 326
19.3.3. Optical Power Attenuators Page: 327
19.4. Test-Support Lasers Page: 328
19.5. Optical Spectrum Analyzer Page: 329
19.6. Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer Page: 330
19.6.1. OTDR Trace Page: 331
19.6.2. Fiber Fault Location Page: 332
19.7. Multifunction Optical Test Systems Page: 332
19.8. Summary Page: 333
Further Reading Page: 334
Chapter 20. Manufacturing Issues Page: 335
20.1. Fiber Fabrication Page: 335
20.1.1. Outside Vapor-Phase Oxidation Page: 336
20.1.2. Vapor-Phase Axial Deposition Page: 337
20.1.3. Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition Page: 338
20.1.4. Plasma-Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition Page: 338
20.2. Component Designs Page: 338
20.2.1. Planar Lightwave Circuits Page: 339
20.2.2. Athermal Designs Page: 341
20.3. Integrated Automation Page: 342
20.4. Packaging Page: 344
20.4.1. Optical Connection Page: 344
20.4.2. Thermal Management Page: 344
20.4.3. Mechanical Concerns Page: 345
20.4.4. Hermetic Sealing Page: 346
20.5. Emerging Package Technology Page: 347
20.6. Summary Page: 347
Further Reading Page: 348
Appendix A. Units, Physical Constants, and Conversion Factors Page: 349
Appendix B. ITU-T Frequency and Wavelength Grid Page: 351
Appendix C. Acronyms Page: 355
Index Page: 361
A Page: 361
B Page: 361
C Page: 362
D Page: 363
E Page: 363
F Page: 364
G Page: 365
H Page: 365
I Page: 365
J Page: 365
K Page: 365
L Page: 365
M Page: 366
N Page: 367
O Page: 367
P Page: 369
Q Page: 370
R Page: 370
S Page: 370
T Page: 371
U Page: 371
V Page: 371
W Page: 371
Y Page: 372