Table Of ContentOPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY IN FORESTRY
VOL. 2: PRACTICE
FORESTRY SCIENCES
Baas P, ed: New Perspectives in Wood Anatomy. 1982. ISBN 90-247-2526-7
Prins CFL, ed: Production, Marketing and Use of Finger-Jointed Sawnwood. 1982.
ISBN 90-247-2569-0
Oldeman RAA, et aI., eds: Tropical Hardwood Utilization: Practice and Prospects. 1982.
ISBN 90-247-2581-X
Den Ouden P and Boom BK: Manual of Cultivated Conifers: Hardy in Cold and Warm-
Temperate Zone. 1982. ISBN 90-247-2148-2
Bonga JM and Durzan DJ, eds: Tissue Culture in Forestry. 1982. ISBN 90-247-2660-3
Satoo T and Magwick HAl: Forest Biomass. 1982. ISBN 90-247-2710-3
Van Nao T, ed: Forest Fire Prevention and Control. 1982. ISBN 90-247-3050-3
Douglas J: A Re-appraisal of Forestry Development in Developing Countries. 1983.
ISBN 90-247-2830-4
Gordon JC and Wheeler CT, eds: Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Forest Ecosystems:
Foundations and Applications. 1983. ISBN 90-247-2849-5
Nemeth MV: The Virus-Mycoplasma and Rikettsia Disease of Fruit Trees.
ISBN 90-247-2868-1
Duryea ML and Landis TD, eds: Forest Nursery Manual: Production of Bareroot Seed
lings. 1984. ISBN 90-247-2913-0
Hummel FC, ed: Forest Policy: A Contribution to Resource Development. 1984.
ISBN 90-247-2883-5
Manion PD, ed: Scleroderris Canker of Conifers. 1984. ISBN 90-247-2912-2
Duryea ML and Brown GN, eds: Seedling Physiology and Reforestation Success. 1984.
ISBN 90-247-2949-1
Staaf KAG and Wiksten NA: Tree Harvesting Techniques. 1984. ISBN 90-247-2994-7
Boyd JD: Biophysical Control of Microfibril Orientation in Plant Cell Walls. 1985.
ISBN 90-247-3101-1
Findlay WPK, ed: Preservation of Timber in the Tropics. 1985. ISBN 90-247-3112-7
Sam set I: Winch and Cable Systems. 1985. ISBN 90-247-3205-0
Leary RA: Interaction Theory in Forest Ecology and Management. 1985.
ISBN 90-247-3220-4
Gessel SP: Forest Site and Productivity. 1986. ISBN 90-247-3284-0
Hennessey TC, Dougherty PM, Kossuth SV and Johnson JD, eds: Stress Physiology and
Forest Productivity. 1986. ISBN 90-247-3359-6
Shepherd KR: Plantation Silviculture. 1986. ISBN 90-247-3379-0
Sohlberg Sand Sokolov VE, eds: Practical Application of Remote Sensing in Forestry.
1986. ISBN 90-247-3392-8
Bonga JM and Durzan DJ, eds: Cell and Tissue Culture in Forestry. Volume 1: General
Principles and Diotechnology. 1987. ISBN 90-247-3430-4
Bonga JM and Durzan DJ, eds: Cell and Tissue Culture in Forestry. Volume 2: Specific
Principles and Methods: Growth and Developments. 1987. ISBN 90-247-3431-2
Bonga JM and Durzan DJ, eds: Cell and Tissue Culture in Forestry. Volume 3: Case
Histories: Gymnosperms, Angiosperms and Palms. 1987. ISBN 90-247-3432-0
(Set Vols. 1-3: ISBN 90-247-3433-9)
Richards EG, ed: Forestry and the Forest Industries: Past and Future. 1987.
ISBN 90-247-3592-0
Kossuth SV and Ross SD, eds: Hormonal Control of Tree Growth. 1987.
ISBN 90-247-3621-8
Sundberg U and Silversides CR, eds: Operational Efficiency in Forestry. Volume 1:
Analysis. 1988. ISBN 90-247-3683-8
Silversides CR and Sundberg U: Operational Efficiency in Forestry. Volume 2: Practice.
1989. ISBN 0-7923-0063-7
Operational Efficiency in Forestry
Vol. 2: Practice
by
C.R. SIL VERSIDES
Prescott, Ontario, Canada
and
U. SUNDBERG
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Garpenberg, Sweden
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
(Revised for vo]. 2)
Operat;iona1 efficiency in forestry.
(Forestry sci.ences ; 29: v. 1; 32: v. 2)
Edi tors' names in r'everse order in v. 2.
Bibliography: p.
Contents: v . .I. Ana1ysi" -- v. 2. Practice.
1. Forestry efficiency. 2. Forests and forestry-
Lalxlr productivity. 3. Forestry engineering.
1. Sundberg, U. (Ulf) II. Si1versides. C. R.
Ill. Series: Forestrv sciences; v. 29:' v. 1; 32: v. 2, etc.
SD387.E33064 1988' 338.1' 6 /i/i-294u
ISBN 978-90-481-4037-4 ISBN 978-94-017-0506-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-0506-6
2nd printing 1996
All Rights Reserved
© 1989 by Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1989
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical
including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.
PREFACE
It is our conviction that professional skill in forestry
will develop more readily and more efficiently if forestry
students are presented with a clear understanding of the im
pact of the physical factors that both enhance and inhibit
forestry activities.
Part I is analytic, written as a basic text for undergradu
ates in courses such as logging, transport, forest engineer
ing and even forest management. It deals with the fundamen
tals of technology in forestry as determined by the physical
environment. The analytic approach serves two purposes, to
bring about a clear understanding of the real world of the
forest and to develop tools through which efficiency and
productivity can be explored, understood and improved. The
principal author of this volume was Prof. Ulf sundberg.
Part II discusses in some detail a wide variety of practical
problems encountered by foresters. It describes harvesting
systems and the principles of management and control of
forest operations. The influence of the forest on operations
is described at length, the terrain, topography, forest
soils as well as the engineering characteristics of trees
and forest stands. It also considers the impact of oper
ations on the forest. The principal author of this volume
was Dr. Ross Silversides. Chapters 11, 12 and 13 were
written by-Prof. Sundberg.
With these two volumes our aim has been to produce a text
with the essential technological knowledge that we consider
every forester should have. The professional profile even of
those specializing in biological and environmental subjects,
should include an understanding of the technology of forest
operations. No detailed descriptions of equipment are given
as these are readily available elsewhere. In this period of
mechanization of harvesting operations obsolescence is a
dominant factor as new concepts for systems and system com
ponents appear and disappear at a rate unheard of pre-World
War II.
Both authors wish to acknowledge the tremendous assistance
afforded us by Gunvor Harrysson, Agneta Krohn, Kerstin
Tordmar, and the illustrators, Britt Lindblad-Sundberg and
Sigge Falk. Professor Per Olov Nilsson, Professor of Forest
Energy systems at Garpenberg, is sincerely thanked for per
mitting the use of the facilities of his department. We are
indebted to the Central Fund for Employees in Forestry and
Forest Industries for a grant which greatly assisted in the
preparation of these volumes. Finally we would like to ack
nowledge the devoted support given by our wives, without
which the volumes would not have materialized.
Prescott, ontario and Krylbo, Sweden, 1988
C.R. Silversides and Ulf Sundberg
v
CONTENTS
PREFACE v
LIST OF FIGURES, Vol. 1 and 2 x
LIST OF TABLES, Vol. 1 and 2 XVI
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY 3
3. WORLD FOREST RESOURCES 5
4. FOREST MECHANIZATION 9
4.1 Harvesting Systems 10
4.1.1 Shortwood 13
4.1.2 Tree length 15
4.1.3 Full tree 17
4.1.4 Unlimbed tree sections 19
4.1.5 utilization of logging residues 19
4.1.6 Impact of marketing on logging
systems 19
4.2 Cutting 19
4.2.1 Axes 20
4.2.2 Saws 21
4.2.3 Shears 25
4.2.4 Circular saw and cutting
disc devices 28
4.3 Concept and Performance 29
4.3.1 Reliability 30
4.4 Equipment Acquisition Through
Ownership, Leasing or Rental 34
4.4.1 Ownership 34
4.4.2 Leasing 36
4.4.3 Rental 38
4.5 Depreciation 39
4.5.1 straight line depreciation 41
4.5.2 Sum of digits depreciation 42
4.5.3 Diminishing balance
depreciation 43
4.6 Equipment Replacement 44
4.6.1 Repair costs 45
4.6.2 Unavailability 45
4.6.3 productivity 46
4.6.4 Fuel 46
4.6.5 Loss in salvage value 46
4.7 Relifing Forestry Machines 47
Vlll
5. CONTROL IN WOODLANDS OPERATIONS 50
5.1 Control Function 50
5.2 Principles Governing the Control
Function 53
5.2.1 Principle of uniformity 53
5.2.2 Principle of comparison 54
5.2.3 Principle of utility 54
5.2.4 Principle of exception 54
5.3 systems Approach or Outlook 55
5.3.1 Harvesting systems 56
5.4 Wood Inventory Control 60
6. INFLUENCE OF THE FOREST ON OPERATIONS 63
6.1 Effect of Stand and Tree
Characteristics Upon Operational
Function 67
6.1.1 Effect of stand volume upon
feller buncher productivity 68
6.1.2 Effect of tree size upon
feller buncher productivity 70
6.1.3 Effect of obstacles and
rough terrain on skidder
productivity 71
6.1.4 Effect of tree size upon
wheeled skidder productivity 73
6.2 Range of Tree Size 74
6.3 Uniformity of Tree Size 82
6.4 Spatial Distribution of Trees 86
6.5 Tree Characteristics 96
6.5.1 Tree branching habits 97
7. FOREST SOILS 105
7.1 Fine Grained Soils 105
7.2 Coarse Grained Soils 106
7.3 Organic Soils 106
7.4 Aspects of Soil Strength 108
7.4.1 Cohesion 109
7.4.2 Friction 111
7.4.3 Moisture content of soil 111
7.5 Bearing Capacity of Soils 112
7.6 Relationship of Rubber-Tired Vehicle
to Soil 113
7.6.1 Tire contact area 113
7.6.2 Relation between tire and
soil under static conditions 113
7.6.3 Relation between soil and
tire in motion 115
7.6.4 Rolling resistance 118
7.6.5 Tires versus tracks 120
8. TERRAIN 124
IX
9 . TOPOGRAPHY 126
9.1 Slope 126
9.1.1 Gradient 126
9.1. 2 Relief 126
9 . 1. 3 Length 128
9.2 Ground Roughness 128
10. SOIL COMPACTION 129
11. EARLY THINNINGS 132
11.1 Harvesting Small Wood 132
11.2 Manual Handling of Wood 134
11.3 Harvesting with Mini-Skidders 136
11.4 Thinning with Single Grip Harvester 138
12. HARVESTING BIOMASS FOR FUEL 140
12.1 Scandinavian Experiences 141
12.2 North American Developments 145
12.3 Energy Plantations 148
13. FOREST ROADS IN A STAGGERED OWNERSHIP
SETTING 150
13.1 Legislation. Right of Way 151
13.2 Classification of Forests with Regard
to Road Utility 152
13.3 Location 155
13.4 Cost Distribution 156
13.5 Road Maintenance Cost 157
13.6 Concluding Remarks 157
REFERENCES 158
FIGURES
Volume 1
Page
1.1 Example on the wood flow of a forest enterprise 3
1.2 Hypothetical isoquants for A and B 6
1.3 Labour productivity and the development of
mechanization in Swedish forestry 8
1.4 The material flow for the Swedish forest
enterprise A 9
1.5 Examples on production forms and vertical
integration in forestry 16
1.6 Main logging systems 20
1.7 Graphs illustrating the influence of the tempo of
work on the physical work load 33
1.8 Typical correlation between tree size and rate of
production 35
2.1 Polygons giving full coverage of an area 60
2.2 Area divided by infinite, parallel roads 61
2.3 Locations of landings 65
2.4 Distribution of the area in distance zones 69
2.5 Measurements of distances from random points for
establishing "V" and "T" factors 70
2.6 Stereometric properties of a log 72
2.7 Graph illustrating the break-even points for
three modes of transport 78
2.8 Break-even point for two modes of transport 80
2.9 optimal road spacing 82
2.10 Optimal road standard 87
3.1 Determining "a" and "b" through plotting of
observations 96
3.2 Break-even points for different modes of
transport 101
3.3 Direct construction cost of forest roads 112
4.1 Expected annual plant yields as a function of
annual solar irridation 122
4.2 ECE region: energy flows in the forest
industries in the mid 1970's 124
4.3 The flow of energy and matter in the forest
sector in the ECE region 125
4.4 Energy system for a charcoal burner at Basttjarn 126
4.5 Example on system boundry of energy analysis of
transport system 129
4.6 Levels indicating system boundaries of energy
analyses 130
4.7 Energy consumption in Swedish forestry in 1972 133
4.8 Graph indicating how fuel and embodied energy
is used 134
4.9 Energy balance for the entire fuelwood
trajectory 135
4.10 Fuelwood energy trajectory for heating Colorado
State Forest Service greenhouses 136
4.11 A generalized fuelwood energy trajectory 137
x
xi
4.12 Total removals from the forests of Europe in
1980, by end uses 138
4.13 Example on the energy consumption in a Swedish
sawmill 139
4.14 Example on energy balance for kiln drying of
lumber 140
4.15 Production function for deriving optimal level
of mechanization 141
4.16 The neoclassical flow model of economic
production 152
4.17 Economic production from an energy perspective 152
In Appendices to Volume 1.
2.1 The winding coefficient for the legs of a right
angled triangle 177
2.2 The winding coefficient for the periphery of a
circle 178
2.3 Derivation of winding coefficient for a curve 178
2.4 Uniform patterns of roads 180
2.5 Average transport distance for a square 181
2.6 Efficiency of roads in square pattern 182
2.7 Deriving transport distance for a triangle with
two equal sides 183
2.8 Logging areas of congruent form from one point 184
2.9 Template of transparent material 186
2.10 Area configuration and graph for determination
of transport distances 187
2.11 Geometry of rectangular area, two way yarding 189
2.12 Upper right-hand quadrant of rectangular harvest
setting 190
3.1 Graph exemplifying the relative value of R/Q 197
4.1 The composition of wood 203
4.2 The calorific energy value of wood at different
moisture content 204
4.3 Wood quantity to replace 1 m3 of oil 205
4.4 Comparison of power ratings 207
4.5 Mussel diagram for a diesel engine 209
Volume 2
Page
1. Flow charts of various harvesting systems 11
2. Logging methods of limit wood in eastern Canada,
1950-1987, in percent (%) of total harvested
volume 12
3. Comparison of productivity of cable and
grapple skidders based upon 8-h day
(Sarles and Luppold, 1986) 15
4. Production in off-road transport, grapple versus
clambunk skidder. Average load: grapple skidder
5,9 m3, clambunk skidder 13,5 m3 (Mellgren, 1987) 16
5. Kinetic energy in Nm generated in axes of
different mass 20
6. Pattern of SUbstitution of cutting tools in
eastern Canada 21
