Table Of ContentOffensive Speech, Religion, and
the Limits of the Law
Offensive Speech,
Religion, and the Limits
of the Law
NICHOLAS HATZIS
1
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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Acknowledgements
I received invaluable advice from colleagues and friends who discussed with
me the issues explored here or commented on draft chapters. I am indebted
to Eric Barendt, Lior Barshack, Vincent Blasi, Sionaidh Douglas-S cott, Leslie
Green, Kent Greenawalt, George Letsas, Ian Loveland, Virginia Mantouvalou,
Yoram Shachar, the late Stavros Tsakyrakis, and the anonymous reviewers for
Oxford University Press. For discussions on religion in constitutional law, and
for unfailing support over many years, I am grateful to Nicos Alivizatos. My
greatest debt in writing this book is to Gerald Neuman, who encouraged my
initial interest in the relation between speech and religion and gave detailed
comments on the manuscript.
I presented some of the ideas developed in the book in a series of lectures on
free speech at the Radzyner Law School, The Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya
in Israel. I thank Dean Amnon Lehavi, Lior Barshack, and the members of the
faculty for the invitation and hospitality, and my students at the IDC for their
lively interest and their questions and contributions in the lectures.
At the Press, Alex Flach and Jamie Berezin were generous with their help
during the time it took to complete the work, and Brianne Bellio was instru-
mental in turning the manuscript into a book.
Chapter 6 incorporates some material first published in my article ‘Lying,
Speech and Impersonal Harm’ (2019) 38 Law and Philosophy 517, and I thank
the publisher and editors for permission to republish here.
Table of Cases
CANADA
R v Keegstra [1990] 3 SCR 697 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
ISRAEL
Suszkin v Israel [1998] IsrSC 52(3) 289 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112n.102
UNITED KINGDOM
Barnett v Kensington and Chelsea Hospital Management Committee
(1969) 1 QB 428 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157n.5
Bowman v Secular Society [1917] AC 406 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Brutus v Cozens [1973] AC 854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9n.6
Casamitjana Costa v The League Against Cruel Sports, case
number 3331129/2 018, consent judgment (2 March 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141n.112
Grainger plc v Nicholson [2010] ICR 360 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141n.111
Overseas Tankship (UK) Ltd v Morts Dock and Engineering Co Ltd (The Wagon
Mound) (No 1) [1961] AC 388 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158n.6
R v Chief Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate ex p Choudhury [1991] 1 QB 429 . . .116– 17
R v Lemon [1979] AC 617 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
R v Ramsay and Foote (1883) 15 Cox CC 231 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115n.7
Redmond- Bate v Director of Public Prosecutions [2000] HRLR 249 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Robinson v Kilvert (1889) 41 Ch D 88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18n.39
St Helen’s Smelting Co v Tipping (1865) 11 HL Cas 642 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11– 12
Thomas and Others v National Union of Mineworkers [1986] Ch 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . .111n.98
Taylor’s Case (1676) 1 Vent 293 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115– 16
UNITED STATES
Abrams v United States 250 US 616 (1919) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92– 93, 161n.20
Baggett v Bullitt 377 US 360 (1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Brandenburg v Ohio 395 US 444 (1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163– 64, 165– 66
Burstyn v Wilson 343 US 495 (1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136, 138
Cantwell v Connecticut 310 US 296 (1940) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102– 3, 106– 7, 137, 138
Chaplinsky v New Hampshire 315 US 568 (1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69n.44, 70
Clark v Community for Creative Non-V iolence 468 US 288 (1984) . . . . . . . . 14n.26, 85n.28
Cohen v California 403 US 15 (1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70, 73– 74, 76– 77, 101, 106–7 , 111, 138
Connally v General Construction Co 269 US 385(1926). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124n.49
Cox v Louisiana 379 US 536 (1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Debs v United States 249 US 211 (1919) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81– 82, 159, 160
Dennis v United States 341 US 494 (1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161, 164
Edwards v South Carolina 372 US 229 (1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Employment Division Department of Human Resources of Oregon v Smith 494
US 872 (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
x Table of Cases
Epperson v Arkansas 393 US 97(1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141– 42
Feiner v New York 340 US 315 (1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148– 49
Frisby v Schultz 487 US 474 (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138n.99
Frohwerk v United States 249 US 204 (1919) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81– 82, 159, 160
Gitlow v New York 268 US 652 (1925) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117n.18
Grayned v City of Rockford 408 US 104 (1972) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129n.70
Gregory v Chicago 394 US 111 (1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Hill v Colorado 530 US 703 (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129– 30
Holder v Humanitarian Law Project 561 US 1 (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164n.42
Hustler Magazine v Falwell 485 US 46 (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72, 113n.103
Jordan v De George 341 US 223 (1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124n.51
Kolender v Lawson 461 US 352 (1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129n.72
Masses Publishing Co v Patten 244 F 535 (SDNY),
rev’d, 246 F 24 (2nd Cir 1917) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81– 82
New York Times v Sullivan 376 US 254 (1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72, 82– 83, 89
Noto v United States 367 US 290 (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 164– 65
Papachristou v City of Jacksonville 405 US 156 (1972) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129n.72
People v Ruggles 8 Johns 290 (NY 1811) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117– 18
Robertson v Baldwin 165 US 275(1897) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119n.31
Scales v United States 367 US 203 (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
Schacht v United States 398 US 58 (1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138– 39
Schenck v United States 249 US 47 (1919) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81– 82, 159, 164
Sherbert v Verner 374 US 398 (1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128n.66
Smith v Goguen 415 US 566 (1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69n.41, 124– 25, 129
Snyder v Phelps 562 US 443 (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111n.100
Spence v Washington 418 US 405 (1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16n.33
State of Maryland v West 9 Md App 270 (1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Street v New York 394 US 576 (1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Terminiello v City of Chicago 337 US 1 (1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147– 48
Texas v Johnson 491 US 397 (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68– 69, 73– 74, 76– 77, 102, 106–7 , 139
Thomas v Review Board of the Indiana Employment Security
Division 450 US 707 (1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140n.107
United States v Alvarez 132 S Ct 2537 (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158, 165
United States v Eichman 496 US 310 (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69n.40
United States v National Dairy Products Corp 372 US 29 (1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125n.54
Virginia v Black 538 US 343 (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102n.74
Walker v Texas Division, Sons of Confederate Veterans 576 US 200 (2015) . . . . . . . . . 87n.34
West Virginia State Board of Education v Barnette 319 US 624 (1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69n.41
Whitney v California 274 US 357 (1927) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163n.39
Yates v United States 354 US 298 (1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162– 63
EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Belkacem v Belgium App no 34367/1 4 (20 July 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95n.59
Bergens Tidende and Others v Norway (2000) 31 EHRR 430 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83n.21
Bladet Tromso and Stensaas v Norway (1999) 29 EHRR 125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83n.21
Castells v Spain (1992) 14 EHRR 445 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83n.20
EB v France (2008) 47 EHRR 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116n.13
ES v Austria (2019) 69 EHRR 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 64, 73–7 4, 89, 151, 156, 171
Garaudy v France App no 65831/0 1 (24 June 2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95n.59
Giniewski v France (2007) 45 EHRR 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88, 89, 109
Glimmerveen and Hagenbeek v Netherlands (1982) 4 EHRR 260 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95n.59
Table of Cases xi
Gunduz v Turkey (2005) 41 EHRR 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24– 25n.54
Handyside v United Kingdom (1976) 1 EHRR 737 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107n.91
Hertel v Switzerland (1998) 28 EHRR 534 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83n.21
IA v Turkey (2007) 45 EHRR 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 63, 64, 73–7 4, 84, 89, 156
Incal v Turkey (1998) 29 EHRR 449 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83n.20
Jersild v Denmark (1995) 19 EHRR 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107n.92
Jerusalem v Austria (2003) 37 EHRR 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83n.20
Karácsony v Hungary (2016) 42 BHRC 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83n.20
Kokkinakis v Greece (1994) 17 EHRR 397 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57, 127– 28
Kuliś and Różycki v Poland App no 27209/0 3 (6 October 2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83n.21
Lehideux and Isorni v France (2000) 30 EHRR 665 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94, 97
Lingens v Austria (1986) 8 EHRR 407 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83n.20
M’Bala v France App no 25293/1 3 (20 October 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95n.59
Malone v United Kingdom (1984) 7 EHRR 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Members of the Gdani Congregation of Jehovah’s Witnesses v Georgia (2008)
46 EHRR 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113n.104
Müller v Switzerland (1991) 13 EHRR 212 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75n.69
Murphy v Ireland (2004) 38 EHRR 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103– 4, 108
Norwood v United Kingdom (2005) 40 EHRR SE11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95n.59
Otto- Preminger- Institut v Austria (1995) 19 EHRR 34 . . . . . . . .22, 56– 57, 63, 64, 73–7 4, 80,
83– 84, 89, 104–5 , 108, 156, 166–6 7, 170
Pavel Ivanov v Russia App no 35222/0 4 (20 February 2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95n.59
Redfearn v United Kingdom (2013) 57 EHRR 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96, 97
Selisto v Finland (2004) 42 EHRR 144 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83n.21
Silver v United Kingdom (1983) 5 EHRR 347 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126n.59
Sunday Times v United Kingdom (1979) 2 EHRR 245 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Tagiyev and Huseynov v Azerbaijan App no 13274/0 8 (5 December 2019) . . . . . . . . . .60– 61
Tierfabriken v Switzerland (2001) 34 EHRR 159 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83n.21, 105
Thorgeir Thorgeirson v Iceland (1992) 14 EHRR 843 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83n.21
Wingrove v United Kingdom (1996) 24 EHRR 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59, 64, 73–7 4,
84, 89, 108, 115–1 6, 156
EUROPEAN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Choudhury v United Kingdom App no 17439/9 0 (5 March 1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116n.14
Table of Legislation
CANADA Smith Act 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
Stolen Valor Act 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Criminal Code s 319(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
UNITED KINGDOM
GERMANY
Criminal Justice and Immigration Act
Criminal Code s 130 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 2008, s 79(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116– 17
Criminal Code section 166 . . . . . . . .141–4 2 Public Order Act 1936 s 5 . . . . . . . . . . . 9n.6
Public Order Act 1986
IRELAND S5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
S18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28– 29
Blasphemy (Abolition of Offences and
S29A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28– 29
Related Matters) Act 2019 . . . . .122–2 3
s29B(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28– 29
S29J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28– 29
UNITED STATES Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006 29– 30
s1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28– 29
Espionage Act 1917 . . . . . . . . . . .81– 82, 159
List of Abbreviations
ACHR American Convention on Human Rights
ECHR European Convention on Human Rights
ECtHR European Court of Human Rights
ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
