Of Mice and Women. Aspects of Female Aggression

395 Pages·1992·6.01 MB·English

by  Kaj Bjorkqvist and Pirkko Niemela (Eds.)

Of Mice
and Women
Aspects of Female Aggression
Edited by
KAJ BJÖRKQVIST
Department of Psychology
Àbo Akademi University
Turku, Finland
PIRKKO NIEMELÄ
Department of Psychology
Turku University
Turku, Finland
ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers
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This book is printed on acid-free paper. 0
Copyright © 1992 by ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Of mice and women : aspects of female aggression / Kaj Björkqvist and
Pirkko Niemelä, editors,
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-12-102590-X
1. Women—Psychology. 2. Aggressiveness (Psychology)
3. Aggressive behavior in animals. I. Björkqvist, Kaj.
II. Niemelä, Pirkko.
HQ1206.03 1992
155.2'32-dc20 92-8880
CIP
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
92 93 94 95 96 97 MM 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To
Kirsti Lagerspetz,
pioneer in the study of female aggression,
colleague, and friend.
Contributors
Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors' contributions begin.
David Adams (17), Psychology Department, Weslyan University, Middletown, Con-
necticut 06457
David Benton (37), Department of Psychology, University College of Swansea,
Swansea SA2 8PP, Wales
Kaj Bjbrkqvist (3, 51), Department of Psychology, Abo Akademi University, SF-
20500 Turku, Finland
D. Caroline Blanchard (317), Pacific Biomedical Research Center, Department of
Anatomy and Reproductive Biology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, Univer-
sity of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822
Robert J. Blanchard (317), Department of Psychology, University of Hawaii, Hon-
olulu, Hawaii 96822
Paul F. Brain (27, 381), School of Biological Sciences, University College of
Swansea, Swansea SA2 8PP, Wales
if. B. Kimberley Cook (149), Fundacion La Salle de Ciencias Naturales, Instituto
Caribe de Antropologia y Sociologia, Caracas, Venezuela
Adma d'Heurle (283), Mercy College, Dobbs Ferry, New York 10522
Leonard D. Eron (89), Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois 60680
Adam Fraczek (107), The Maria Grzegorzewska College for Special Education,
02-352 Warsaw, Poland
Douglas P. Fry (187), Anthropology Department, Eckerd College, St. Petersburg,
Florida 33711
Santiago Genovés (209), Instituto de Investigaciones Antropologicas, Universidad
Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510 Mexico, D. F.,
Mexico
Usa M. Glazer (163), Barnard College, Columbia University, New York, New York
10027
xix
XX Contributors
Charles Goldenbeld (217), Department of Social and Organizational Psychology,
University of Utrecht, 3508 TC Utrecht, The Netherlands
Jeffrey H. Goldstein (65), Department of Social and Organizational Psychology,
University of Utrecht, 3508TC Utrecht, Netherlands
Nancy G. Guerra (77), Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois 60680
Marc Haug(27\ 381), Laboratoire de Psychophysiologie, Université Louis Pasteur,
67000 Strasbourg, France
Reijo Holmström (295), Department of Psychiatry, University of Turku, 20840
Turku, Finland
Kathryn E. Hood (395), College of Health and Human Development, The Penn-
sylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
L. Rowell Huesmann (77), Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at
Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60680
Frank J.Johnson (381), Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern
California, Section of Neurobiology, Los Angeles, California 90089
Art Kaukiainen (51), Department of Psychology, Turku University, SF-20500
Turku, Finland
Liisa Keltikangas-Järvinen (123), Department of Psychology, University of Helsinki,
00100 Helsinki, Finland
Rolf Kuschel (173), Psychological Laboratory, University of Copenhagen, 2300
Copenhagen S., Denmark
Béatrice Kvist (351), Department of Psychology, Âbo Akademi University, SF-20500
Turku, Finland
Bodil Lindfors (229), Department of Psychology, Âbo Akademi University, SF-
20500 Turku, Finland
Ralf Lindman (241), Department of Psychology, Abo Akademi University, SF-
20500 Turku, Finland
Hein F. M. Lodewijkx (217), Department of Social and Organizational Psychology,
University of Utrecht, 3508 TC Utrecht, The Netherlands
Laurie Miller (77), Developmental Pediatrics, Columbia University, New York, New
York 10027
Johannes Myyrä (263), Department of Psychology, Âbo Akademi University, SF-
20500, Turku, Finland
Pekka Niemelä (201), Kukolainen, 21160 Merimasku, Finland
Pirkko Niemelä (3, 273), Department of Psychology, Turku University, SF-20500
Turku, Finland
Peter Oberg (133), Kuntokallio Center for Gerontological Training and Research,
01100 Östersundom, Finland
Karin österman (51), Department of Psychology, Âbo Akademi University, SF-
20500 Turku, Finland
Stefano Parmigiani (27), Institute of Zoology, University of Parma, 43100 Parma,
Italy
Michael Potegal (329), National Research Council, Walter Reed Army Institute of
Research, Washington, D.C. 20307
Contributors xxi
Lea Pulkkinen (113), Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, 40351
Jyväskylä, Finland
Jacob M. Rabbie (217), Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, Uni-
versity of Utrecht, 3508 TC Utrecht, The Netherlands
Gordon W. Russell (251), Department of Psychology, University of Lethbridge,
Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada ΤΙΚ 3M4
Jan-Erik Ruth (133), Kuntokallio Center for Gerontological Training and Research,
01100 Östersundom, Finland
N. Kenneth Sandnabba (367), Department of Psychology, Âbo Akademi University,
SF-20500 Turku, Finland
John Paul Scott (307), Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University,
Bowling Green, Ohio
Vappu Viemerö (99), Department of Psychology, Âbo Akademi University, SF-20500
Turku, Finland
Arnaldo Zelli (77), Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois 60680
Preface
Male aggressiveness has been thoroughly studied; however, little has been writ-
ten on female aggressiveness. We felt a need existed for a compilation of research
on this topic from the diverse disciplines that treat it: anthropology, social psy-
chology, animal research, psychoanalysis, and literature. Of Mice and Women:
Aspects of Female Aggression is such a compilation, and we hope that it will be
a source for researchers in the field. As an interdisciplinary study, it may also serve
teaching purposes in distinct disciplines.
Several basic questions are considered in this book. Is the belief that females
of all species are less aggressive than males a myth? Is female aggressive behav-
ior perhaps only qualitatively, and not necessarily quantitatively, different from
its male counterpart? Does female aggression within the human species differ from
that within the animal species? Are gender differences in aggressive patterns
caused by hormones and neurobiology, or can they be explained by reference to
learning mechanisms? What are typical patterns of female aggression, and how
do they develop? Are there perhaps cultures in which the patterns of female
aggression differ drastically from those seen in the West, and are women in some
cultures more aggressive than women in others? How have the different forms of
female aggression been portrayed in literature?
Addressing these questions and others of their kind necessitated a multi-
disciplinary approach. We asked several distinguished scientists from different dis-
ciplines—many of whom belong to the International Society for Research on
Aggression, and all have conducted research on female aggression—to write a
chapter about their research.
This book is dedicated to and many of its chapters directly inspired by the
work of Kirsti Lagerspetz, a pioneering investigator of the antecedents of both
human and subhuman female aggression. Her discovery of the genetic component
of aggression in mice and its interaction with learning mechanisms has proved to
xxiii
xxiv Preface
be of extreme importance in the field of animal aggression. During recent years,
her interest has turned to human female aggression and its various forms, specif-
ically indirect aggression. Her research has always been exactly on the pulse of
time, describing new, relevant topics. A book about the current state of knowl-
edge on female aggression could hardly be dedicated to a more deserving person.
The editing process of this book has been a valuable experience for both of
us. We now certainly know more about female aggression than we did before, and
by reading all the chapters we have had many inspiring insights and ideas. At the
same time, we have come to realize how much research is still needed in the field.
A book of this kind can naturally not be accomplished without help and sup-
port from a variety of sources. Financial support has been given by the Research
Council for the Social Sciences, the Academy of Finland, The Research Foun-
dation of Âbo Akademi University, and the Turku University Foundation. We
greatly appreciate their aid.
In addition to the contributors of this volume, whom we thank whole-
heartedly, there are several people whose help we would like to acknowledge. We
would like to thank Nikki Fine at Academic Press for her kind encouragement at
all stages of the editing process. Her letters were always a source of inspiration
to us. Several people have aided us with the proofreading and typing, and we would
like to thank Lindsey Hair, Anthony Johnson, Outi Nieminen, and Jacqueline
Välimäki for their assistance.
Two persons have given us invaluable help in the editing process, and we
want to express our very special gratitude to them. One is David Morton, who is
responsible for the style of much of this work. He has spent many long hours proof-
reading and revising manuscripts under great time pressure. His linguistic skills
and ability to phrase complicated terminology into readable English has certainly
made the book more accessible to the reader. His work has been extremely valu-
able to us.
The other person is Karin Österman, who has facilitated our work in many
respects. As a researcher in this field, she has also given professional suggestions.
Her skill with computers and sense of organization have been indispensable to us;
she has typed, taken care of files, and dealt with much of our correspondence. She
is an invisible "third editor" without whose assistance this work would have been
difficult to accomplish.
Kaj Björkqvist
Pirkko Niemelä
D
New Trends in the Study
of Female Agression
Kaj Björkqvist and Pirkko Niemelä
I. INTRODUCTION: THE PHENOMENON OF "FEMALE AGGRESSION"
II. FEMALE AGGRESSION: DEFINITION AND FORMS
III. THE "MALE" PERSPECTIVE
IV. THE DANGER OF ETHNOCENTRISM
V. THE PROBLEM OF METHODOLOGY
VI. RECENT STUDIES: METHODOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL CHANGE
VII. AN EMERGING PERSPECTIVE
VIII. ARE MALES MORE AGGRESSIVE THAN FEMALES?
A. Is Physical Aggression the "True" Form of Aggression?
B. Female-Male Encounters
C. Female-Female Encounters
IX. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
I. Introduction: The Phenomenon
of "Female Aggression"
The study of female aggression as a phenomenon in itself has only recently begun
to receive due attention. This chapter is an examination of developmental trends
in the new research on human female aggression, considering the present stage of
knowledge about, and discussing the reasons for, its various forms in different cul-
tures as well as its occurrence during diverse life stages and situations. Since
much of this research has been an attempt to describe in what way such aggres-
sion varies from its male counterpart, attention is necessarily drawn here to the
question of differences between the sexes; again, of the many reviews of sex dif-
ferences in regard to aggression, it is only one written in the last few years that
has focused specifically on female forms of aggressive behavior (Burbank, 1987).
Of Mice and Women: 3 Copyright © 1992 by Academic Press, Inc.
Aspects of Female Aggression All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
4 Kaj Björkqvist and Pirkko Niemelä
In consequence, we will question whether the statements "males are in general
more aggressive than females" or "males are in general not more aggressive than
females" are meaningful at all.
II. Female Aggression:
Definition and Forms
Aggression (unspecified by gender) may be defined as an act done with the inten-
tion to harm another person, oneself, or an object. Aggression and aggressiveness
are considered to be two separate, but related, concepts, one an act, the other a
personality trait. It may be useful to identify also the motivational state of hav-
ing the intention to hurt, harm, or cause pain, in the definition of aggression. Zill-
mann (1979), for example, differentiates between the attitude hostility and the
behavior aggression. This is not always done (Dollard et al., 1939; Buss, 1961;
Baron, 1977), perhaps because of the long tradition of behaviorism which states
that motivational states may not be directly observed. We suggest though, that if
not only acts, but also the motivational states, the intentions to hurt are consid-
ered as aggression, concepts like "repressed" and "displaced" aggression become
meaningful.
Since Buss (1961), aggression has been categorized into dichotomies, such
as physical versus verbal, and direct versus indirect. Feshbach (1964) coined the
dichotomy instrumental versus hostile (emotional) aggression. A more common,
but equally important dichotomy is attack (generally considered unjustified) ver-
sus defense (justified). Receptively, the harm or pain induced by aggressive acts
may be either physical or psychological by its nature. We think that these cate-
gories may still be useful when we try to map sex differences with respect to
aggression in various cultures, life situations, and life stages.
Aggression may occur at the interpersonal (between individuals), group
(between groups), or institutional (institutionalized by society, one group sup-
pressing another) level. Females may be involved at all these levels, indeed at each
we may distinguish between male-female, female-male, ana female-female (inter-
female) aggression. The oppression of women, still a fact in a majority of cultures
in the world today, is a vivid example of institutional aggression, which has been
analyzed as the ultimate male-female aggression (see Myyrä, Chapter 24, this
volume).
During the various stages of life, females are members of different groups,
and may accordingly get into a variety of conflict situations. We may differenti-
ate between aggression within the primary group (the family), and aggression
within secondary groups (school, work, etc.).
During childhood, female aggression within the family is likely to appear
in the form of sibling rivalry, although young girls may also feel hostility toward