Table Of ContentOcean Remote Sensing Technologies
Other volumes in this series:
Volume 1 Optimised Radar Processors A. Farina (Editor)
Volume 3 Weibull Radar Clutter M. Sekine and Y. Mao
Volume 4 Advanced Radar Techniques and Systems G. Galati (Editor)
Volume 7 Ultra-Wideband Radar Measurements: Analysis and processing L. Yu.
Astanin and A.A. Kostylev
Volume 8 Aviation Weather Surveillance Systems: Advanced radar and surface
sensors for flight safety and air traffic management P.R. Mahapatra
Volume 10 Radar Techniques Using Array Antennas W. Wirth
Volume 11 Air and Spaceborne Radar Systems: An introduction P. Lacomme (Editor)
Volume 13 Introduction to RF Stealth D. Lynch
Volume 14 Applications of Space-Time Adaptive Processing R. Klemm (Editor)
Volume 15 Ground Penetrating Radar, 2nd Edition D. Daniels
Volume 16 Target Detection by Marine Radar J. Briggs
Volume 17 Strapdown Inertial Navigation Technology, 2nd Edition D. Titterton and J.
Weston
Volume 18 Introduction to Radar Target Recognition P. Tait
Volume 19 Radar Imaging and Holography A. Pasmurov and S. Zinovjev
Volume 20 Sea Clutter: Scattering, the K distribution and radar performance K.
Ward, R. Tough and S. Watts
Volume 21 Principles of Space-Time Adaptive Processing, 3rd Edition R. Klemm
Volume 22 Waveform Design and Diversity for Advanced Radar Systems F. Gini, A.
De Maio and L.K. Patton
Volume 23 Tracking Filter Engineering: The Gauss-Newton and Polynomial Filters
N. Morrison
Volume 25 Sea Clutter: Scattering, the K distribution and radar performance, 2nd
Edition K. Ward, R. Tough and S. Watts
Volume 33 Radar Automatic Target Recognition (ATR) and Non-Cooperative Target
Recognition D. Blacknell and H. Griffiths (Editor)
Volume 26 Radar Techniques Using Array Antennas, 2nd Edition W. Wirth
Volume 101 Introduction to Airborne Radar, 2nd Edition G.W. Stimson
Volume 534 New Methodologies for Understanding Radar Data Amit Kumar Mishra
and Stefan Brüggenwirth
Ocean Remote Sensing Technologies
High frequency, marine and GNSS-based
radar
Edited by
Weimin Huang and Eric W. Gill
The Institution of Engineering and Technology
Published by SciTech Publishing, an imprint of The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United
Kingdom
The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England & Wales (no. 211014) and
Scotland (no. SC038698).
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2022
First published 2021
This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention. All rights
reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or
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with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-83953-161-3 (hardback)
ISBN 978-1-83953-162-0 (PDF)
Typeset in India by Exeter Premedia Services Private Limited
Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon
Contents
About the Editors
Preface
1 HF radar in a maritime environment
Eric W Gill and Weimin Huang
1.1 HF radar as an ocean remote sensor – introduction
1.1.1 A few fundamentals
1.1.2 Common classes and properties of ocean-mapping HFSWR
1.2 A brief historical perspective on relevant theory and technology
1.2.1 Relevant propagation and scattering theory
1.2.2 Technological advances
1.3 RCSs of the ocean
1.3.1 A technique for developing an RCS of the ocean
1.3.2 Other cross-section results
1.3.3 RCS depictions and discussion
Acknowledgment
References
2 Oceanographic applications of high-frequency (HF) radar
backscatter
Jeffrey D Paduan
2.1 Factors influencing HF backscatter
2.1.1 The electromagnetic spectrum and the speed of light
2.1.2 Factors related to the use of HF transmissions
2.1.3 Impacts of noise and averaging
2.1.4 Relevant time and space scales
2.1.5 Depths observed by HF radar
2.2 Real-time applications of HF radar backscatter
2.2.1 Considerations of real-time applications
2.2.2 Examples of real-time applications
2.3 Example of an intermediate-scale observation
2.4 Process studies using HF radar backscatter
2.5 Conclusions
References
3 Symbiosis of remote sensing and ocean surveillance
missions of HF skywave radar
Stuart J Anderson
3.1 Modelling the radar observation process
3.1.1 The radar process model
3.1.2 Calibration
3.1.3 Sea clutter modelling I: the direct problem
3.1.4 Sea clutter modelling II: the inverse problem
3.2 Characteristics of OTHR radar missions
3.3 Remote sensing information for enhanced surveillance
3.3.1 Detection
3.3.2 Location
3.3.3 Target classification
3.3.4 Resource management
3.3.5 Tactical intelligence
3.4 Summary
References
4 Sea surface current mapping with HF radar – a primer
Clifford R Merz, Yonggang Liu, and Robert H Weisberg
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Theory behind radial and vector current derivation from HF radar Doppler spectrum
4.3 Factors affecting current measurements
4.3.1 HF radar system types
4.3.2 Range resolution
4.3.3 Geometrical dilution of precision
4.3.4 Signal propagation and sea state
4.4 HF radar current observations on the West Florida Shelf
4.5 Ongoing HF radar investigations on the West Florida Shelf
4.5.1 An event of offshore working range drop
4.5.2 Average background noise and RFI effect
4.5.3 Atmospheric radio Refractivity (N) effect
4.5.4 Wind speed effect
4.6 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
5 An initial evaluation of high-frequency radar radial
currents in the Straits of Florida in comparison with
altimetry and model products
Yonggang Liu, Clifford R. Merz, Robert H. Weisberg, Lynn K. Shay, Scott M. Glenn, and
Michael J Smith
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Data sets
5.2.1 High-frequency radar current data and post-processing
5.2.2 Satellite altimetry-derived current products
5.2.3 Numerical model output
5.3 Evaluation metrics
5.4 Comparison with geostrophic currents derived from along-track altimetry
5.5 Comparison with geostrophic currents derived from gridded altimetry
5.6 Comparison with data assimilative model output
5.7 Summary and discussion
Acknowledgment
References
6 Ocean wave measurement
Lucy R Wyatt
6.1 Introduction to ocean waves
6.2 Waves in the Doppler spectrum
6.2.1 First order
6.2.2 Second order
6.3 Inversion
6.3.1 Approximations and empirical methods
6.3.2 Integral inversion
6.3.3 The constrained iteration method
6.4 Examples and validations
6.4.1 Time series
6.4.2 Statistics
6.4.3 Spatio-temporal wave development
6.5 Sources of error and limitations
6.5.1 Radar data quality
6.5.2 Averaging
6.5.3 The scattering model
6.5.4 Numerical methods
6.6 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
7 A non-linear method to estimate the wave directional
spectrum by HF radar
Yukiharu Hisaki
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Equations of radar cross sections
7.3 Discretization of the integral equation
7.4 Other constraints
7.5 Algorithm
7.6 Procedure of wave spectrum estimation
7.7 Example of wave estimation and issues to be addressed
References
8 HF radar observation of nearshore winds
Brian Emery and Anthony Kirincich
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Background
8.2.1 Early studies
8.2.2 Wind direction via wave spreading models
8.2.3 Wind speed
8.3 Winds from second-order wave estimates
8.4 Winds from first order
8.5 Discussion
8.5.1 Trade off between first- and second-order wind sensing
8.5.2 Further radar noise issues
8.5.3 Propagation losses
8.5.4 Future directions
8.6 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
9 HF radar in tsunami detection
ML Heron
9.1 The underlying physics
9.2 Observation of surface currents
9.3 Tsunami characteristics
9.3.1 Physics of tsunamis
9.4 HF ocean radar detection of tsunamis
9.4.1 Crossed-loop HF radar systems
9.4.2 Phased-array HF radars
9.5 Definition of a hazardous tsunami
9.6 Discussion and summary
9.6.1 Oblique tsunamis
9.6.2 Maximising the alert period
9.6.3 Achieving surface current resolution
9.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
10 High-frequency surface wave radar for target detection
Anthony Miles Ponsford and Peter Moo
10.1 Introduction to high-frequency surface wave radar basics
10.2 HFSWR system configurations
10.2.1 Bistatic c2onfiguration
10.2.2 Monostatic
10.3 HFSWR for target detection
10.4 Radar power budget
10.4.1 Radar range equation for a noise-limited environment
10.4.2 Radar range equation for an ocean clutter limited environment
10.5 Ocean clutter
10.6 Surface wave propagation
10.7 Maximum detection range
10.8 External noise
10.8.1 Manmade noise
10.8.2 Atmospheric noise level
10.8.3 Galactic noise
10.9 Interference and clutter
10.9.1 External interference
10.9.2 Self interference (clutter)
10.9.3 Ionospheric clutter
10.9.4 Ionospheric clutter scattering modes
