Table Of ContentNutrition and the Adult
Microllutriellts
Human Nutrition
A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE
General Editors:
Roslyn B. Alfin-Slater, University of California, Los Angeles
David Kritchevsky, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia
Volume 1 Nutrition: Pre- and Postnatal Development
Edited by Myron Winick
Volume 2 Nutrition and Growth
Edited by Derrick B. Jelliffe and E. F. Patrice Jelliffe
Volume 3A Nutrition and the Adult: Macronutrients
Edited by Roslyn B. Alfin-Slater and David Kritchevsky
Volume 3B Nutrition and the Adult: Micronutrients
Edited by Roslyn B. Alfin-Slater and David Kritchevsky
Volume 4 Nutrition: Metabolic and Clinical Applications
Edited by Robert E. Hodges
Nutrition and the Adult
Micronutrients
Edited hy
Roslyn B. Al/in-Slater
University of California
Los Angeles, California
and
David KritchevskJ'
The Wistar Institute
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
PLENUM PRESS . NEW YORK AND LONDON
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Nutrition and the adult.
(Human nutrition; v. 3B)
Includes bibliographies and index.
1. Vitamins in human nutrition. 2. Trace elements in nutrition. 1. Alfin-Slater,
Roslyn 1916- II. Kritchevsky, David, 1920- III. Series. [DNLM: 1. Nutrition-
In adulthood. QU145.3 H9182 v. 3]
QP141.H78 vol. 3B [QP77l] 612'.3'08s [612'.399] 79-3888
ISBN 978-1-4615-7218-3 ISBN 978-1-4615-7216-9 (eBook)
DOl 10.1 007/978-1-4615-7216-9
© 1980 Plenum Press, New York
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1980
A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation
227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 100Il
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher
This volume is dedicated to all the
scientists whose work has advanced
our understanding of
how to apply knowledge
to benefit human nutrition.
Contributors
Lilla Aftergood • School of Public Health, University of California at Los
Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90024
Roslyn B. Alfin-Slater • School of Public Health, University of California at
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90024
Myron Brin • Department of Biochemical Nutrition, Hoffmann-La Roche,
Inc., Nutley, New Jersey 07110
Susanne K. Czarnecki • The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Phila
delphia, Pennsylvania 19104
Hector F. DeLuca. Department of Biochemistry, College of Agricultural and
Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
53706
Robert Edgar Hodges. Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Nutrition,
University of California, School of Medicine, Davis, California 95616
David Kritchevsky • The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadel
phia, Pennsylvania 19104
Edwin M. Lansford, Jr. • Department of Chemistry and The Clayton Foun
dation Biochemical Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin,
Texas 78712
L. J. Machlin • Department of Biochemical Nutrition, Hoffmann-La Roche,
Inc., Nutley, New Jersey 07110
John F. Mueller. Department of Medicine, St. Luke's Hospital, Denver,
Colorado 80203
Robert E. Olson. Department of Medicine, St. Louis University School of
Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104
William Shive • Department of Chemistry and The Clayton Foundation Bio
chemical Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas
78712
E. Neige Todhunter. Division of Nutrition, Vanderbilt University School of
Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
Hilda S. White. Nutrition Consultant, Wilmette, Illinois 60091
George Wolf. Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Massachusetts In
stitute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
vii
Foreword
The science of nutrition has advanced beyond expectation since Antoine La
voisier as early as the 18th century showed that oxygen was necessary to
change nutrients in foods to compounds which would become a part of the
human body. He was also the first to measure metabolism and to show that
oxidation within the body produces heat and energy. In the two hundred years
that have elapsed, the essentiality of nitrogen-containing nutrients and of
proteins for growth and maintenance of tissue has been established; the ne
cessity for carbohydrates and certain types of fat for health has been docu
mented; vitamins necessary to prevent deficiency diseases have been identified
and isolated; and the requirement of many mineral elements for health has
been demonstrated.
Further investigations have defined the role of these nutrients in metabolic
processes and quantitated their requirements at various stages of development.
Additional studies have involved their use in the possible prevention of, and
therapy for, disease conditions.
This series of books was designed for the researcher or advanced student
of nutritional science. The first volume is concerned with prenatal and post
natal nutrient requirements; the second volume with nutrient requirements for
growth and development; the third with nutritional requirements of the adult;
and the fourth with the role of nutrition in disease states. Our objectives were
to review and evaluate that which is known and to point out those areas in
which uncertainties and/or a lack of knowledge still exists with the hope of
encouraging further research into the intricacies of human nutrition.
Roslyn B. Alfin-Slater
David Kritchevsky
ix
Preface
Nutrition has been defined as the study of nutrients in foods from the time
they are ingested to the time their metabolic end products are excreted. In
cluded in the study of these processes are a host of catabolic and anabolic
reactions following digestion and absorption, the manner in which these nu
trients interact with each other, and the systems in which they participate.
Furthermore .. nutrition implies a study of nutrient requirements for all seg
ments of a healthy population.
Whether the requirements for nutrients are met requires nutritional as
sessment. For infants, requirements are based on nutrients present in human
milk. For children, anthropometric measures-height, weight, arm circumfer
ence-are compared with standards to see whether adequate weight gain and
growth are maintained. For adults, there are no simple determinants to esti
mate adequate nutrition other than the maintenance of "normal" weight and
"health."
These volumes, dealing with nutrition of the adult, were divided so that
the macronutrients would be considered separately from the micronutrients.
Volume 3A starts with a discussion of the recommended dietary allowances
and how they are formulated. Thereafter, the digestion, metabolism, and func
tions of the various macronutrients are presented. Volume 3B is concerned
with the micronutrients and also with the interactions of the various nutrients
with common drugs. Volume 3B ends with a discussion of nutrition for the
older adult and some of the problems which arise with aging. All of the authors
in these volumes are experts in their respective areas.
It is hoped that calling attention to the known and unknown in nutrition
will act as a stimulus for further research. It is only when we can relate
functions and metabolic reactions of nutrients with external symptoms that we
will be able to properly assess nutritional status and requirements and even
tually arrive at an optimum rather than an adequate diet.
We wish to thank Miss Jane T. Kolimaga for her expert assistance in the
preparation of the indices.
Roslyn B. Alfin-Slater
David Kritchevsky
Los AngeLes and PhiladeLphia
xi
Contents
Chapter 1
Roles of Vitamins as Coenzymes
William Shive and Edwin M. Lansford, Jr.
I. Introduction.................................................. I
2. Biotin....................................................... 2
3. Nicotinic Acid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4. Pantothenic Acid ............................................. 12
5. Vitamin Bs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . 19
5. I. Decarboxylation......................................... 21
5.2. Side-Chain Cleavage. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 21
5.3. Loss of an a-Hydrogen .................................. 22
6. Thiamine .................................................... 26
7. Lipoic Acid .................................................. 30
8. Folic Acid ................................................... 33
9. Vitamin B12 .................................................. 39
9.1. Transfer and Reactions of Methyl Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
9.2. Rearrangements......................................... 42
10. Riboflavin.................................................... 46
II. Coenzyme Q ................................................. 52
12. Other Vitamin Cofactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
12.1. Vitamin K .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
12.2. Ascorbic Acid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
13. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Chapter 2
Vitamin C
Robert Edgar Hodges
I. The Lure of Vitamin C ........................................ 73
2. Discovery of Vitamin C ....................................... 74
3. Biochemistry and Physiology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4. Metabolic Functions of Vitamin C .............................. 78
4.1. Excretion of Ascorbic Acid and Its Metabolites. . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
xiii
xiv Contents
5. Minimal Daily Requirement and Recommended Allowance ........ 80
6. Scurvy in Experimental Animals ............................... 81
7. Clinical Scurvy ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8. Human Scurvy............................................... 82
9. Food Sources of Vitamin C .................................... 84
10. Pharmacologic Doses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
11. Toxicity of Vitamin C .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . . .. 89
12. Summary .................................................... 92
13. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Chapter 3
Vitamin A
George Wolf
1. Historical Introduction ........................................ 97
2. Nomenclature, Chemical Structures, and Chemical Properties. .. .. 100
3. Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103
3.1. Absorption of Carotenes and Their Conversion to Retinol. . .. 103
3.2. Absorption of Preformed Vitamin A ... . ... ... . . .. . . ... .... 106
4. Storage...................................................... 108
5. Transport of Vitamin A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 111
6. Vitamin A Deficiency and the Function of Vitamin A .. ..... ... . .. 120
6.1. Vision.................................................. 120
6.2. Bone and Nerves (Including Cerebrospinal Fluid) ........... 129
6.3. Reproduction........................................... 132
6.4. Epithelial Growth and Differentiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 136
6.5. Vitamin A Deficiency and Growth. .. . ... . . .. . ... . . ... ... .. 144
6.6. Vitamin A Deficiency in Man. .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. .. . .. . .. . .. 146
6.7. Production of Vitamin A Deficiency in Experimental
Animals ................................................ 150
7. Biochemical Mechanisms of Vitamin A Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
7.1. Enzymes............................................... 152
7.2. Cofactors and Substrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 153
7.3. Serum Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 154
7.4. An Approach through Molecular Biology. . ... . ... . . ... . .... 154
8. The Metabolism of Vitamin A .................................. 162
8.1. Conversion to Active Forms.. . .. . . .. . .. . . ... . .. . . . ... .... 163
8.2. Conversion to Excreted Forms. .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . ... . .... 168
8.3. Turnover, Half-Life, and Body Pool of Vitamin A .......... 171
9. The Retinoids ................................................ 175
10. Hypervitaminosis A and Vitamin A Toxicity.. . ... . ... . .... .. . ... 178
10.1. Effects on Bone and Cartilage ........................... 178
10.2. Congenital Malformations .................. :.. . . .. . .. . .. 180
10.3. Hemorrhages .......................................... 181
