Nuclear safety

565 Pages·2020·5.381 MB·English

by  Petrangeli, Gianni

Nuclear Safety
Nuclear Safety
Second Edition
Gianni Petrangeli
Consultant, Formerly ENEA, Italy
Formerly University of Pisa, Italy
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Contents
Preface................................................................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER 1 Introduction...........................................................................................1
1.1 Objectives...................................................................................................................1
1.2 AShort Historyof Nuclear Safety Technology........................................................2
1.2.1 TheEarly Years...............................................................................................2
1.2.2 From the Late 1950s tothe Three Mile Island Accident................................3
1.2.3 From the Three Mile Island Accident tothe ChernobylAccident.................9
1.2.4 TheChernobylAccident and After...............................................................11
1.2.5 Fukushima Accidentand itsLessons............................................................13
Endnotes....................................................................................................................14
References.................................................................................................................17
Further Reading........................................................................................................17
CHAPTER 2 Inventory and Localization of Radioactive Products
in the Plant..........................................................................................19
References.................................................................................................................22
CHAPTER 3 Safety Systems and Their Functions..................................................23
3.1 Plant Systems...........................................................................................................23
3.2 Safety Systems and Accidents.................................................................................24
3.3 Future Safety Systems and Plant Concepts.............................................................31
3.3.1 General Remarks............................................................................................31
3.3.2 Some Passive Safety Systems for Nuclear Plants.........................................34
3.3.3 Inherently Safe Systems in the Process Industries........................................38
Endnotes....................................................................................................................42
References.................................................................................................................42
Further Reading........................................................................................................43
CHAPTER 4 The Classification of Accidents and a Discussion of Some
Examples.............................................................................................45
4.1 Classification............................................................................................................45
4.2 Design Basis Accidents............................................................................................45
4.2.1 Some Important Data for AccidentAnalysis................................................45
4.2.2 Example of aCategory2 Accident: Spurious Opening
of aPressurizer Safety Valve........................................................................51
4.2.3 Example of aCategory3 Accident: InstantaneousPowerLoss
to All the PrimaryPumps..............................................................................53
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4.2.4 Example of aCategory 4Accident: Main Steam Line Break......................54
4.2.5 Example of aCategory 4Accident: Sudden Expulsion ofa Control
Rod From the Core........................................................................................56
4.2.6 Example of aCategory 4Accident: Break of the Largest Pipe
ofthe Primary System (LargeLOCA)..........................................................59
4.2.7 Example of aCategory 4Accident: Fuel Handling Accident......................61
4.2.8 Area Accidents...............................................................................................62
4.3 Beyond Design Basis Accidents..............................................................................63
4.3.1 Plant-Originated Accidents............................................................................64
4.3.2 Accidents Due toHuman Voluntary Actions................................................64
4.4 External Accidents of Natural Origin......................................................................65
Endnote.....................................................................................................................66
References.................................................................................................................67
Further Reading........................................................................................................68
CHAPTER 5 Severe Accidents................................................................................69
5.1 Existing Plants..........................................................................................................69
5.2 FuturePlants: Extreme and Practicable Solutions..................................................71
5.3 SevereAccident Management:The Present State of Studies and
Implementations.......................................................................................................75
5.4 Data onSevere Accidents........................................................................................76
5.5 Descriptions of Some Typical Accident Sequences................................................76
5.5.1 Lossof Station Electric PowerSupply (TE5Transient1Loss
ofElectrical Supply)......................................................................................76
5.5.2 Lossof Electric Power With LossofCoolant Accident (LOCA)
From the Pump Seals (SE5Small LOCA1Loss of Electric Power)........79
5.5.3 Interfacing Systems LOCA (V).....................................................................79
5.5.4 Large LOCA With Failure ofthe Recirculation (ALFC).............................80
5.5.5 Small LOCA With Failure ofthe Recirculation...........................................81
5.6 “SourceTerms”for Severe Accidents.....................................................................81
References.................................................................................................................83
Further Reading........................................................................................................84
CHAPTER 6 The Dispersion of Radioactivity Releases.........................................85
6.1 The Most InterestingReleases for Safety Evaluations...........................................85
6.2 Dispersion ofReleases: Phenomena........................................................................87
6.3 ReleaseDispersion:Simple Evaluation Techniques...............................................91
6.4 Formulae andDiagrams for the Evaluation ofAtmospheric Dispersion...............93
6.5 Calculation ofAtmospheric Dispersionby Computer Fluid DynamicsCodes......99
Endnotes..................................................................................................................101
References...............................................................................................................102
Contents vii
CHAPTER 7 Health Consequences of Releases...................................................103
7.1 The Principles of Health Protectionand Safety....................................................103
7.2 Some Quantities, Terms, and Units ofMeasure of Health Physics......................103
7.3 Types ofEffects of RadiationDosesand Limits..................................................105
7.4 Evaluation of the Health Consequences of Releases............................................106
7.4.1 Evaluation ofInhalationDoses From Radioactive Iodine..........................106
7.4.2 Evaluation ofDosesDue toSubmersion ina Radioactive Cloud..............106
7.4.3 Evaluation ofthe Dosesof Radiation From Caesium-137 Deposited
on the Ground(“Ground-Shine” Dose).......................................................107
7.4.4 Evaluation ofthe DoseDue to Depositionof Plutonium
on the Ground..............................................................................................107
7.4.5 Indicative Evaluation of Long Distance Doses for VerySerious
Accidents toNuclear Reactors....................................................................107
7.4.6 DirectRadiation Doses................................................................................107
References...............................................................................................................110
CHAPTER 8 The General Approach to the Safety of the Plant(cid:1)Site
Complex.............................................................................................111
8.1 Introduction............................................................................................................111
8.2 The Definition ofthe Safety Objectives of aPlant on a Site...............................111
8.2.1 TheObjectives and Limits ofRelease/Dose...............................................111
8.3 Some Plant Characteristics for the Preventionand Mitigation of Accidents.......112
8.4 Radiation Protection Characteristics......................................................................113
8.5 Site Characteristics.................................................................................................113
CHAPTER 9 Defence in Depth...............................................................................115
9.1 Definition, Objectives, Levels,and Barriers.........................................................115
9.2 AdditionalConsiderations on the Levels of Defence inDepth............................116
References...............................................................................................................118
CHAPTER 10 Quality Assurance.............................................................................119
10.1 GeneralRemarks andRequirements......................................................................119
10.2 Aspects toBe Underlined......................................................................................120
References...............................................................................................................120
Further Reading......................................................................................................120
CHAPTER 11 Safety Analysis..................................................................................121
11.1 Introduction............................................................................................................121
11.2 Deterministic Safety Analysis................................................................................121
11.3 Probabilistic Safety Analysis.................................................................................124
11.3.1 Event Trees................................................................................................126
11.3.2 Fault Trees..................................................................................................126
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11.3.3 Failure Rates..............................................................................................135
Endnote...................................................................................................................135
References...............................................................................................................135
CHAPTER 12 Safety Analysis Review.....................................................................137
12.1 Introduction............................................................................................................137
12.2 The Reference Points.............................................................................................137
12.3 Foreseeing Possible Issuesfor Discussion............................................................138
12.4 Controlis notDisrespectful...................................................................................139
12.5 Clarification is notDisrespectful...........................................................................139
12.6 Designer Report......................................................................................................141
12.6.1 Introduction................................................................................................141
12.6.2 Conclusions................................................................................................141
12.6.3 Hydrodynamic Aspects..............................................................................141
12.6.4 Effective Mass ofOscillating System.......................................................142
12.6.5 Evaluation ofFluid Damping....................................................................142
12.6.6 Vibration Analysis.....................................................................................142
12.7 Discussion...............................................................................................................146
Endnote...................................................................................................................147
References...............................................................................................................148
CHAPTER 13 Classification of Plant Components.................................................149
References...............................................................................................................150
CHAPTER 14 Notes on Some Plant Components...................................................151
14.1 ReactorPressure Vessel.........................................................................................151
14.1.1 ProblemsHighlighted byOperating Experience.......................................151
14.1.2 Rupture Probability ofNonnuclear Vessels..............................................152
14.1.3 Failure Probability ofNuclear Vessels......................................................153
14.1.4 Vessel Material Embrittlement duetoNeutron Irradiation......................158
14.1.5 Pressurized Thermal Shock.......................................................................160
14.1.6 The Reactor Pressure VesselofThree Mile Island 2...............................160
14.1.7 GeneralPerspective on the Effect of Severe Accidents
onthe Pressure Vessel...............................................................................161
14.1.8 Recommendations for the Prevention of Hypothetical Accidents
Generated bythe Pressure Vessel.............................................................163
14.2 Piping......................................................................................................................165
14.2.1 Evolutionof the Regulatory Positions.......................................................165
14.2.2 ProblemsIndicatedby Experience............................................................166
14.2.3 Leak Detection inWater Reactors............................................................168
14.2.4 Research ProgramsonPiping....................................................................169
Contents ix
14.3 Valves.....................................................................................................................170
14.3.1 General Remarks........................................................................................170
14.3.2 Relevant Data From Operating Experience..............................................171
14.3.3 TheMost Commonly Used Types ofValve.............................................172
14.3.4 Types ofValve: Critical Areas, Design,and Operation...........................173
14.3.5 Valve Standards.........................................................................................179
14.4 Containment Systems.............................................................................................180
References...............................................................................................................182
CHAPTER 15 Earthquake Resistance.....................................................................185
15.1 GeneralAspects,Criteria, and Starting Data........................................................185
15.2 Reference Ground Motion.....................................................................................189
15.3 StructuralVerifications..........................................................................................199
15.3.1 Foundation SoilResistance........................................................................199
15.3.2 Resistance ofStructures.............................................................................205
References...............................................................................................................231
Further Reading......................................................................................................233
CHAPTER 16 Tornado Resistance..........................................................................235
16.1 The Physical Phenomenon.....................................................................................235
16.2 Scale ofSeverity ofthe Phenomenon....................................................................237
16.3 Design Input Data..................................................................................................238
References...............................................................................................................238
CHAPTER 17 Resistance to External Impact..........................................................239
17.1 Introduction............................................................................................................239
17.2 AircraftCrash Impact.............................................................................................239
17.2.1 Effects ofan AircraftImpact.....................................................................239
17.2.2 Overall Load on aStructure......................................................................240
17.2.3 Vibration ofStructures and Components..................................................242
17.2.4 Local Perforationof Structures..................................................................242
17.2.5 TheEffect ofa Fire...................................................................................243
17.2.6 Temporary Incapacity ofthe OperatingPersonnel...................................243
17.3 Pressure Wave........................................................................................................244
17.4 Other Impacts.........................................................................................................245
References...............................................................................................................246
CHAPTER 18 Nuclear Safety Criteria.....................................................................249
18.1 GeneralCharacteristics..........................................................................................249
18.2 The USGeneralDesign Criteria............................................................................250
18.3 IAEA Criteria.........................................................................................................251
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18.4 EUR Criteria...........................................................................................................251
18.5 Other General Criteria Compilations.....................................................................252
18.6 Possible Future Developments of Safety Methods andCriteria...........................253
18.6.1 Recent Astonishing Events........................................................................253
18.6.2 Possible Evolution inSafety Evaluation Methods(Mistakes and
Limits inProbability Evaluations)and inSafetyCriteria........................253
References...............................................................................................................259
Further Reading......................................................................................................260
CHAPTER 19 Nuclear Safety Research..................................................................261
Reference................................................................................................................262
CHAPTER 20 Operating Experience........................................................................263
20.1 Introduction............................................................................................................263
20.2 Principal Sources....................................................................................................263
20.3 Some Significant Events........................................................................................263
20.3.1 Mechanical Events.....................................................................................264
20.3.2 Electrical Events........................................................................................265
20.3.3 System Events............................................................................................265
20.3.4 Area Events................................................................................................266
20.3.5 Reactivity Accidents..................................................................................267
20.3.6 Possible FutureAccidents..........................................................................267
20.4 The International NuclearEvent Scale..................................................................268
References...............................................................................................................272
CHAPTER 21 Underground Location of Nuclear Power Plants.............................273
References...............................................................................................................276
CHAPTER 22 The Effects of Nuclear Explosions...................................................279
22.1 Introduction............................................................................................................279
22.2 Types ofNuclear Bomb.........................................................................................279
22.3 The Consequences of aNuclear Explosion...........................................................280
22.4 Initial Nuclear Radiation........................................................................................281
22.5 Shock Wave............................................................................................................282
22.6 Initial Thermal Radiation.......................................................................................283
22.7 Initial Radioactive Contamination (“Fallout”)......................................................284
22.8 Underground NuclearTests...................................................................................285
22.8.1 Historical Data on Nuclear Weapons Tests..............................................285
22.8.2 The Possible Effects ofan UndergroundNuclear Explosion...................285
22.8.3 The Possible Radiological Effects of the Underground Tests..................286
References...............................................................................................................286