Table Of ContentII ANNALS OFTIIB INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSIC<\L YEAR, VOL. IV. PartsI.11& III
ICSU
INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC UNIONS
CONSEIL INTERNATIONAL DES UNIONS SCIENTIFIQUES
CSAGI
COMITE SPECIAL DE L'ANNEE GEOPHYSIQUE INTERNATIONALE
SPECIAL COMMITTEE FOR THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR
Bureau
Professor S. CHAPMAN, President
c/o CSAGI Secretariat
3, Avenue Circulaire, Uccle, Belgium
Dr. L. V. BERKNER, Vice-President
Professor V. V. BELOUSSOV, Member Professor J. COULOMB, Member
Professor M. NICOLET, General Secretary
3, Avenue Circulaire, Uccle, Belgium
ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS
Dr. D. C. MARTIN, Chairman
The Royal Society,
Burlington House, London, W.l
Dr. W. W. ATWOOD Rev. J. O. CARDUS, S.J. Professor V. V. BELOUSSOV
Professor G. LACLAVERE The General Secretary ofCSAGI
ANNALS OF THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR
Editorial Advisory Board
Dr. A. H. SHAPLEY (World Days) ProfessorA.DANJON(LongitudesandLatitudes)
Professor J. VAN MmGHEM (Meteorology) Sir JAMES WORDm (Glaciology)
Dr. V. LAURSEN (Geomagnetism) Professor G, LACLAvERE (Oceanography)
ProfessorS.CHAPMAN(Auroraand Airglow) Dr. L.V. BERKNER(Rockets and Satellites)
Dr. W. J. G. BEYNON (Ionosphere) Professor V. V. BELOUSSOV (Seismology)
Dr. Y. OHMAN (Solar Activity) Rev. P. LEJAY, S.J. (Gravity Measurements)
Professor J. A. SIMPSON (Cosmic Rays) Professor M. NICOLET (Nuclear Radiation)
General Editor: Sir HAROLD SPENCER JoNES
Communications fortheAnnals shouldbesent to the General SecretaryofCSAGI. Itissuggested that
the shorttitlefor quotationsand referencesshould by'IGYAnnals'.
PUBLISHEDBY PERGAMONPRESS (LONDON, NBW YORK,PARIS)
FORTHB SPECIALCOMMIITEE FOR THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR
PART I
NUCLEAR RADIATION
TECHNIQUES FOR RADIOACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS
PERGAMON PRESS
London New York Paris
PART II
AURORA AND AIRGLOW
THE AURORA IN MIDDLE AND LOW LATITUDES
S. Chapman
with the aid of C. W. Gartlein, D. S. Kimball, J. Paton, O. Schneider, and J. L. Thomsen
VISUAL AURORA OBSERVATION
S. Chapman
AURORAL PHOTOGRAPHY
C. W. Gartlein
VISUAL OBSERVATION OF THE AIRGLOW AND OTHER NON-AURORAL
LUMINOSITIES OF THE SKY
C. Hoffmeister and J. Paton
PHOTOMETRIC OBSERVATION OF THE AIRGLOW
F. E. Roach
THE ALL-SKY CAMERA AND ITS USE*
C. T. Elvey and W. Stoffregen
with the aid of A. Becon and S. Chapman
PERGAMON PRESS
London New York Paris
* This Chapter will appear in a later issue of the Annals,
PART III
LONGITUDES AND
LATITUDES
INSTRUCTIONS POUR LA PRÉSENTATION DES RESULTATS DES SERVICES
HORAIRES PENDANT LA PÉRIODE 1957-58 ET LA RÉDUCTION DES OBSER
VATIONS FAITES AVEC DES INSTRUMENTS DE PASSAGES
N. Stoyko
INSTRUCTIONS POUR LA DÉTERMINATION DE L'HEURE ET DE LA
LATITUDE AVEC L'ASTROLABE IMPERSONNEL A. DANJON
A. Danjon
INSTRUCTIONS POUR L'EMPLOI DE LA RADIOÉLECTRICITÉ DANS L'OPÉ
RATION MONDIALE DES LONGITUDES ET DES LATITUDES
B. Decaux
INSTRUCTIONS FOR OPERATION OF THE MOON-POSITION CAMERA
W. Markowitz
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE OF THE PZT IN THE
LONGITUDE AND LATITUDE PROGRAMME
W. Markowitz
PERGAMON PRESS
London New York Paris
NUCLEAR RADIATION
TECHNIQUES FOR RADIOACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS
1 Introduction
ONE principal purpose in forming a working group on nuclear radiation studies
within the CSAGI was to encourage the establishment of world-wide studies using
tracer techniques during the IGY. Within this framework, the major interests have
been in applications to meteorology and oceanography. In addition, there is a
requirement for a physical inventory of distributed natural and man-made radio
activity.
The advantages of the IGY for the study of radioactivity lie in the opportunity
for the simultaneous measurement of certain atmospheric properties on a world
wide basis. Other related samplings or measurements may be facilitated by the
opportunity offered to scientists or equipment already engaged in other field
studies.
A global network operation can stimulate interest and bring new scientific talent
into the field. In fact, this is necessary if the desired coverage is to be obtained and
if the needs for analysis of samples are to be met.
The number of scientists involved requires certain standards to be set up to
allow full comparison of data. This manual is designed to set forth these standards
and to assist those unfamiliar with the field of sampling and analysis for radio
activity. It should be realized that many of the measurements suitable for network
operation are currently being carried out in several countries by as many techniques.
Therefore, it has been necessary to set up minimum standards only, and to adjust
specifications to cover all present practices. This is not undesirable, since in so
doing new laboratories can now make a choice of proven techniques in setting up
operations.
The specific network operations described are :
(1) Measurement of particulate airborne fission products at ground level.
(2) Measurement of particulate airborne fission product activity at high altitudes.
(3) Measurement of the deposition of fission product activity.
(4) Measurement of natural radioactivity of the air.
(5) Determination of total fission products and radio-carbon in sea-water.
Details for reporting the measurements of radioactivity are given in the Appendix
to this Manual.
2 Measurement of Particulate Airborne Fission
Products at Ground Level
The periodic measurement of particulate airborne fission products at ground
level will assist in tracing the movement of air masses. The accuracy requirements
for this determination are not extreme and are suitable for network operation.
7
NUCLEAR RADIATION
TECHNIQUES FOR RADIOACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS
1 Introduction
ONE principal purpose in forming a working group on nuclear radiation studies
within the CSAGI was to encourage the establishment of world-wide studies using
tracer techniques during the IGY. Within this framework, the major interests have
been in applications to meteorology and oceanography. In addition, there is a
requirement for a physical inventory of distributed natural and man-made radio
activity.
The advantages of the IGY for the study of radioactivity lie in the opportunity
for the simultaneous measurement of certain atmospheric properties on a world
wide basis. Other related samplings or measurements may be facilitated by the
opportunity offered to scientists or equipment already engaged in other field
studies.
A global network operation can stimulate interest and bring new scientific talent
into the field. In fact, this is necessary if the desired coverage is to be obtained and
if the needs for analysis of samples are to be met.
The number of scientists involved requires certain standards to be set up to
allow full comparison of data. This manual is designed to set forth these standards
and to assist those unfamiliar with the field of sampling and analysis for radio
activity. It should be realized that many of the measurements suitable for network
operation are currently being carried out in several countries by as many techniques.
Therefore, it has been necessary to set up minimum standards only, and to adjust
specifications to cover all present practices. This is not undesirable, since in so
doing new laboratories can now make a choice of proven techniques in setting up
operations.
The specific network operations described are :
(1) Measurement of particulate airborne fission products at ground level.
(2) Measurement of particulate airborne fission product activity at high altitudes.
(3) Measurement of the deposition of fission product activity.
(4) Measurement of natural radioactivity of the air.
(5) Determination of total fission products and radio-carbon in sea-water.
Details for reporting the measurements of radioactivity are given in the Appendix
to this Manual.
2 Measurement of Particulate Airborne Fission
Products at Ground Level
The periodic measurement of particulate airborne fission products at ground
level will assist in tracing the movement of air masses. The accuracy requirements
for this determination are not extreme and are suitable for network operation.
7
8 NUCLEAR RADIATION
Air concentrations are most comparable when expressed in fissions per unit
volume. This requires radio-chemical analysis; facilities for such analyses are, how
ever, not available for network-scale operations. All data, therefore, will be reported
in terms of total ß-activity per cubic metre.
Samples should be taken by drawing known volumes of air through a suitable
filter medium. Analysis is by measurement of total /3-activity.
Sampling location
Filter units should not be located downwind from industrial stacks or heavy dust
sources. They should be at a height of at least 1 metre above the ground and the
filter medium should be protected from direct rainfall.
Sampling time
It is recommended that continuous measurements be made, changing the filter
every 24 hours. Starting times should be synchronized at 06.00 GMT.
Filter medium
The filter medium should have an efficiency of at least 95% for particles of
0-2 μ and above.*
Total volume
The total volume of air sampled should be sufficient to give a net counting error
of ±25% at an activity level of 0-5 d/min.m 3.f
Sample treatment
Direct counting of the filter is recommended for simplicity. Dry or wet ashing
in an oxidizing atmosphere is permissible, but may cause loss of some isotopes.
Measurement
Samples should be analyzed by ß-counting to the accuracy described above. The
activity should be referred to an infinitely thick source of a potassium salt with the
same area as the sample. Secondary working standards of other materials are
acceptable if referred to potassium.
Samples should be counted a minimum of three days after sampling to allow decay
of short-lived natural activity. J
Data reporting
The following data are required :
(1) Station location.
(2) Date and time (GMT) at which taking of sample started and ended.
(3) Activity in d/min.m3 (air at STP).
* Information is available from CSAGI Advisory Committee on Nuclear Radiation.
t Experience has shown that a total volume of 200 m 3 of air is adequate under average counting
conditions.
I Fresh fission products decay rapidly and may cause a large error. For such samples, an attempt
should be made to extrapolate the activity back to the day of sampling. Particulars on procedures are
available from the Advisory Committee.
TECHNIQUES FOR RADIOACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 9
(4) Counting date or extrapolation date (date on which activity in section 3
exists).
(5) Total precipitation in mm.
(6) Major type of precipitation indicated according to standard meteorological
symbols.
Stations which cannot take air samples as described may produce some qualitative
information by the exposure of gummed films or surgical gauze for 24-hour periods.
Periods should be synchronized to start at 06.00 GMT. These samples can be pro
cessed under current fall-out programs, if necessary on the basis of bilateral agree
ment.
Data reporting
The following data are required :
(1) Station location.
(2) Date and time (GMT) at which taking of sample started and ended.
(3) Activity in mc/km2.
(4) Counting date.
(5) Total precipitation in mm.
(6) Major type of precipitation indicated according to standard meteorological
symbols.
(7) Method of collection.
3. Measurement of Particulate Airborne Fission
Product Activity at High Altitudes
Data on concentrations of fission products in the free atmosphere, including both
the troposphere and stratosphere, will assist in evaluating deposition of particles
and mixing processes. Different techniques are in use in the countries where such
samples are taken and any one of these may be adopted by other interested groups.*
Total jS-activity on filters may be measured as described for ground-level samples.
The smaller number of samples obtained permits determination of individual iso
topes, particularly 90Sr and 137Cs. These may be analyzed by radio-chemical or
spectroscopic techniques.
Data reporting
The following data are required :
(1) Sampling location (latitude and longitude).
(2) Date and time (GMT) at which taking of sample started and ended.
(3) Activity in μο/kg of air.
(4) Counting date.
(5) Activities of individual isotopes in μο/kg of air.
(6) Air pressure in mb.
(7) Height above sea-level in gpm, (i.e. geo-potential meter).
(8) Temperature in °C.
* Particulars of procedures are available from the Advisory Committee.
TECHNIQUES FOR RADIOACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 9
(4) Counting date or extrapolation date (date on which activity in section 3
exists).
(5) Total precipitation in mm.
(6) Major type of precipitation indicated according to standard meteorological
symbols.
Stations which cannot take air samples as described may produce some qualitative
information by the exposure of gummed films or surgical gauze for 24-hour periods.
Periods should be synchronized to start at 06.00 GMT. These samples can be pro
cessed under current fall-out programs, if necessary on the basis of bilateral agree
ment.
Data reporting
The following data are required :
(1) Station location.
(2) Date and time (GMT) at which taking of sample started and ended.
(3) Activity in mc/km2.
(4) Counting date.
(5) Total precipitation in mm.
(6) Major type of precipitation indicated according to standard meteorological
symbols.
(7) Method of collection.
3. Measurement of Particulate Airborne Fission
Product Activity at High Altitudes
Data on concentrations of fission products in the free atmosphere, including both
the troposphere and stratosphere, will assist in evaluating deposition of particles
and mixing processes. Different techniques are in use in the countries where such
samples are taken and any one of these may be adopted by other interested groups.*
Total jS-activity on filters may be measured as described for ground-level samples.
The smaller number of samples obtained permits determination of individual iso
topes, particularly 90Sr and 137Cs. These may be analyzed by radio-chemical or
spectroscopic techniques.
Data reporting
The following data are required :
(1) Sampling location (latitude and longitude).
(2) Date and time (GMT) at which taking of sample started and ended.
(3) Activity in μο/kg of air.
(4) Counting date.
(5) Activities of individual isotopes in μο/kg of air.
(6) Air pressure in mb.
(7) Height above sea-level in gpm, (i.e. geo-potential meter).
(8) Temperature in °C.
* Particulars of procedures are available from the Advisory Committee.
10 NUCLEAR RADIATION
4 Measurement of the Deposition of Fission
Product Activity
The aim of these measurements should be to determine the total amount deposited
per unit area on the earth's surface of those long-lived isotopes that are conveniently
studied in the atmosphere. If possible, dry and wet deposition should be separated.
Since, however, in most areas of the world the larger part of the activity is deposited
in precipitation, it is considered acceptable to measure samples of total deposition.
For the determination of specific isotopes, it is necessary to extend the sampling
period to 1 month. The samples should be assayed for total ß-activity and relevant
long-lived isotopes such as 90Sr and/or 137Cs.
Procedure
Collectors of a suitable material (such as stainless steel, polyethylene) should be
located in consultation with meteorological experts to ensure adequate collection of
precipitation. Samples could be either partially processed at the station (evapor
ation, ion exchange) or sent to the laboratory in polyethylene bottles. In the
northern hemisphere 0-1 m2 has been found to be sufficient for monthly samples to
give ±10% accuracy in a 90Sr determination including a 1-hour count. (Cf. the re
commendations made by the UN Scientific Committee on the Effects of Nuclear
Radiation.)*
Measurement
Total ß-counts should be standardized according to the procedure recommended
for air-samples. The 90Sr and 137Cs processing should be standardized using the
standards of these isotopes available from the National Bureau of Standards or
similar institutions.
Data reporting
The following data are required :
(1) Station location.
(2) Date and time (GMT) at which taking of sample started and ended.
(3) Activity in mc/km2.
(4) Counting date.
(5) Total precipitation in mm.
(6) Major type of precipitation indicated according to standard meteorological
symbols.
5 Measurement of Natural Radioactivity of the Air
The daily measurements of radon and thoron or their daughter products will
assist in the more accurate delineation of the radioactivity of the earth's atmosphere.
Since short period variations (of the order of a few hours) can be detected, it is
possible to study diurnal fluctuations.
* Particulars of radio-chemical procedures will be made available through the Advisory Committee.
