Nuclear and Radiochemistry

427 Pages·2012·21.21 MB·English

by  Jozsef Konya

Nuclear and Radiochemistry
Nuclear and Radiochemistry
Jo´zsef Ko´nya and Noe´mi M. Nagy
Isotope Laboratory, Department of Colloid and Environmental Chemistry
University of Debrecen
Debrecen, Hungary
AMSTERDAM(cid:1)BOSTON(cid:1)HEIDELBERG(cid:1)LONDON(cid:1)NEWYORK(cid:1)OXFORD
PARIS(cid:1)SANDIEGO(cid:1)SANFRANCISCO(cid:1)SINGAPORE(cid:1)SYDNEY(cid:1)TOKYO
Elsevier
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Firstedition2012
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Contents
I'rerate xiii
I Introduction I
FUl1her Rcmling II
2 Basic Concepts 13
2.1 ATomic Nuclei 13
2.1.1 COlI\r<)m:m~ of Nudd 13
2.2 Force~ in the Nucleus IS
2.3 Other Properties of Nuclei 19
2.4 Elementary Panicles 20
25 Models of Nuclei 21
2.5.1 TIll! Liquid-Drop Model 23
2.5.2 The Shell Model 25
2.5.3 Unified ,md Collec1ive Models 25
FUr1hcr Reading 25
3 Isotopes 27
3.1 Isotopic En"cet, 29
3. Ll Physical Isotope Effcct~ "
3.1.2 Spectroscopic Isotope Effects J3
3.1.3 Phase Equilibrium isotope Effects 34
3.1.4 Isotope Eff~'<:I~ in the Kinetics uf Chemical Reactions 34
3.1.5 TIll! Isotope Effect in " Chemical Equilibrium 38
3.1.6 Biolo£ic'~J isotope Effects 39
3.2 Scpamtion of Isotopes 40
3.3 Isotope Composition in Nature 41
3.4 $1 udy of Geolugical Formatioos amI Pm.:c,,"!s
hy Slable Isotope Ralil"
3.4.1 Study of the Temperature and Age of Geological
..
Fomlations
..
3.4.2 Study of 1m: Hydrological Process by Mcasuring lhe Ralio
of Oxygen alld Hydrogen L<olOpeS
3.4.3 Challgcs in lhe lSUlOPC R~lio of NilrogclI
3.4.4 lSOlOpe R,llios of Carbon "
3.4.5 Slable ISOlOpe Ra1ios in Ecological Studies 47
Funhcr RcadinJ; 47
,;
Radloo<';.~ Ik<:"l" "
4.1 Kine,"", of Radioac.'Iive bec-~y "
4, 1.1 Sla,i~liCl' of Simple Radi()acl;.'e Decay "
4.1.2 Activity and lnlensily "
4.1.3 OttIY of 1ndol"'IIdcni (Mi~.d) N"dcl "
4.1.4 Branchin, Drc~y "
".I.S Kin~1ic>ofSllCCc"iv. Decay "
4.1.6 Ibdioocli,"c &Juilibri. "
4.2 R.di"""I;'" Ike.y Series "
4.3 Radioocli,-e O.,ing "
4,3.1 Radi.>;ICI;'.., O;'ling by Lc.d JJ.oIOpc Ral;''''' .".
4,3.2 Radi ..a ctive o..l;n~ by Hdi"", C"JI«flIrn,ion .".
4.3.3 RaJ;."",li"" D;"in8 hy J'j.~i(H1 "f Uranium "
4,3.4 Radiooclh-e [);,t;ng by A.gon CooCCnlMiQII
".3.S R.di""",;,·c DOling by " Rb_'lSr. P-""'nl-D.u~hlcr Pai .. ..
4.3.6 Radiocarbon Daling "
4.4 ~I",h"ni..., "r R.Jioacti.,c DecIY "
4.4.1 o""ay
Alpl~,
4.4.2 Bela O«.y. "
4.4.3 Elect",n C'p1ure "
4.4.4 I'm«ln and Neurrl)ll Ixc"y "
4A.S SPOO'a,)Coos fi!->ion "
4.4.6 [. ." "cric Tr311~ili"n (IT) 80
4.4.7 E>oIi~ Decay "
Funher R.ading "
,
InicTIlclion of Radiation with MaUer "
S.I Oa.,ic Cone.pls "
S.2 In,crnclioo of Alpha Ponkle . ... i,l, Mallor "
5.2.1 Enr'llY l=< of Alpha Pani"'.- "
5.2.2 aacl;.",allcring "f Alph. I'"~nkl". "
S.l [n,,,,.,<>o,''''' or ad. R.d':ttion with Mall'" "
5.3.1 In'cr.lc:1ion of !let. Panicle< wi,h Orbi"'l [;loclmn•
..
• N , .... t'/""Ioar Fid d "
5.3.2 Cbcl\'nlnv Radimi"" "
5.3.3 ,\onihil.lio" or p",ilmns
5.3.4 AbsoIVl~," of Ikw R;oJialioo ~
5.3.5 Self-Absorption of Bel. R3dialion 102
5.3.6 B.cl;sc,"crin~ of Bel. R.di.lioo '"
SA [n,<,.,,,,,,''''' of O.nuD. R~dialiOl' with MOiler '"
5.J.1 Rayleigh Scall.ring '"
5A.2 Thom"", S<:-~l1crinl! '"
5.4.1 Compron S<"3u.nng '"
5.4A The Ph010clcetric Eft"", '"
5.4.5 !>;tir RlnD.,ion '"
.....
(",,.
.ii
5.4,6 Total A~i"n of O,llnrna Radia,i"" 116
S.4.7 K<'SOn""~~ Ab""l"ioo "r """lei .nd 'he ~~,ba"er Err"", 117
~.s In'~r:IC,ion "r NeOlrons ,,"i,h "bll~r 122
~.5,1 Di..,,,very of Nc"U'",ns J2J
:1.5.2 l'mduelion of Nco'roo, 12.1
S.S ..l Inle:.-",,';o" of Neulroo, with Mauer '"
Funh~r RcadinB m
•
no
No<lur Rea";"",
6.1 Kinc1;c. "f Nuclear ROO<"li"", '"
6.2 Cla ..i r",.lio" of Nuckar Re:><:fions '"
6.2,1 Nuclear ReOClio", with Ne",,,,", '"
6.2.2 Nuclear Reactio", "'ilh Ga"In'" i'h<Hoo, ''''
6.2.3 N""lcar R.actioo, ",ith CharBni Panicles ''''
6.2.4 Thennon""kar Reaction, '"
6.2.5 N""leogen",;" l"IIoe Producl;on or £1''''''"10 ;n !he Un;".,,,, 1~2
6.2.6 !'roduelioD of Tl:ln,uranium Ele""'DIS 147
6.3 G.:ncr.1 S<'hcme of RaJionudidc: Pruduetion by Nuclear
RC<l<,io'" ",Ill Radi",,"cliv< DecO)' 150
6.4 CIIe",;"al Err"",. of N""I ••r ReacliQn, 150
Fonh. ... ReadinB 152
,
Nudear f.nfI'l!Y Prochtflon '"
OS,
7.1 Nuckar l'ow<or I'IMI.
7.1, I n.. Main I"m, or Nuekd' RCa<h>rS OS.
7.1,2 NalU,.1 " ",,\car React". . '"
..
7.U Tile FiJ'Sl Anifici.1 J\"""lcar Re.clor '"
7.1.4 Typ<:' or Nuclear Rei"'''''' ,'"
7. I .5 En"i"",m.n. . 1 impacts of N""lear Ro""'011
7.2 Accidollu in "<ocI. .. Power I~anl' '"
7.3 Slor.S' "nJ T",,,ulIem of Spent F""I .nJ Oil. .,
Rod;oo"s',;"=. W,. asle ''''
7.3.1 or L(}UI· ancIlnlermediate-Le,'cl Nucl.ar W'M~ '"
7.3.2 Treat""'"t .,Ill S,oro~c of H;~h.Le,'Cl Nudear W""le '"
7.4 N. ... Trend~ in Nudear Bn. ..n ''rod",li"" \7.1
7A_I 11I11"oven"'nt "rthe ~'.~i,,,, in Nuclear Po. .. ", I'I'''I~ '"
1.4_2 E~I,..i"lcn's ... i,h l'u"o/1 En<'l!Y Prndur'K'" '"
7.5 Nucle.,. '"
W~'f,.m.
Funllorll.e.cling '"
• on
Rudi",,<t,,-c Trater Method.
on
S.l HiSlory or Radioac1;'-C Tr>Cer Me,hods
".
8.2 B~.Jc CO ..... ,pI<
8.J Sele",ion or Tr.tc:ers '"
8.4 i'osition of Ibe Labe1iD~ A,um ;n a Molecule '"
,-"
,j;
" c;.,,,,,rdl Method< fo, the: I'r<par.Iljo" "r Radina<ti"e Tr""ers '"
8,~.1 Tr""." R.,.,ei • .-d from Radi<>o.<!i,'e Dtt.~ s....i~s '"
..
S,H Anilkial Rooi<>o.ct;,·e Tr'lI""" '"
••• Rod;OOCli,,, l>O!opc;. in Tracer Mcd><>ds '"
".
,
8,6.1 Tril;u",
Carbon-IJ '"
..
'00
8,6.3 lso.""". U,.,.I;n Medic.l PIIT
'''''ope,
8,M Sod;"m '00
,
W M~gncs;um·28 201
Alum;num·!8 ""
8,6.7 Ph"'ph,,..., •.) 2 (1'• .12) ""
8,6.8 Sulfur·15 (S.35) 202
8,6.1l 00100'; ..... 36 '"
~,6.10 POI .., ;"", 1<01""", '"
~.6.1 I Cak;um·. . U '"
8,6.12 Oorom;um·51 (Cr·~11 101
,OJ
8,6.13 MMg3 .... "'·S4
8,6.14 Iron 1"",,1'<=' 'OJ
8,6.15 Coo,lt-60 '"
8,6.16 NicLcI-6) ,OJ
,OJ
8,b.17 Corpor ISO/opo_
8,6.1~ Zinc-65 '"
8.6.19 Gallium and Germanium ' ....0 1'. . '"
8,6.20 A,senic-76 (A.-76) '"
I.""""",
~,6.21 Radioactive 01 Selenium. Bm,"i"". and Rare
Earth Ekmen .. '"
8.6.n I:Imtnlnc l"l4opcs '"
8.6.23 Kryp'o"-1I.'i '"
8.6.24 Rubidiun,·86 205
8,6.25 Strontium Is",,,!,,,s '"
8,6.16 Ynrium·90 ""
8,6.21 TedlJlol;um·99m (fc·99m) '"
8,6.28 RUlen;un,. Rhodium. and P"llad;um hotope. ,~
11.6.29 Sih'er ["",,,pcs '"
8,6.30 Ddmiu",·II~m ""
'''''0Jlt'
8,6.31 IOOi"," ,~
8.6.32 [wine lID10pes ,~
11.6.33 Xo""" Isotopes '"
8,6.].4 Ccs.ium lSOlopos 207
8,6.35 Rcnio,,,·I86 '"
8,6.36 lridium·ln '"
8,6.17 Gold·198 '"
".
8,6.}8 Me,00ry·203
".
~.6.J9 l<QIopts of Elemont, He ••i er 'han Morcul}' ".
8,6.40 Transuranium EIc'n<:nIS
c,,. .....
"
B. 7 11>0 M,in St~"" "f .1 .. Production of Unl'ulod R,dio;octiv~
P"'p.r:llionl' iL.jo,; B.ran),,,i) 108
H.7.1 UnSl'~Itd R3di<Xl(ti,·~ Preparation. U~ing Re."or
Irradia.ion 1O'J
S.7.2 Un"'~led R3dioi>Olopc: Pr~p;mnion' Ba",d on Cyelonoo
Irrntli •• ioo 222
ns
8.7.3 Quality Cn"',,,1 of Un",~I.d Radioac.iv. Pn:l"""'ti<~"
8.8 Production of Encapsul.led R.dioacti ve Prep,ralioo,
(Sc,led Sources) (lajos Bar:my,i) 225
S.H.I 11>0 Main SI~P;S of lhe ProdUClioo of S.altd Radi,,!lCI;"o
Source. 226
8.H.2 Qua)ily Conlm) of Sc.lcd Ihdioacli.e Source. 226
8.9 f.dlilics. &juip"",nl .•n tI Toni, Serving for PmJUClioo ,,[
Radi"ac,ive Sub<tat~ (l .jos B.ran)".i) 226
Funher Reading 230
,
I'h"~kochtmk',d Applicalion <If R.diolrattr MeUlOds
9.1 l1l< ThctttlOd)·"'mic C""t.-cpt of aa<sir.c~li""
(Oi."ibu'io" of R.dio;oc.i"" and Sluble 1<01,,1"'<) UJ
".
9.2 Cla,.if. ., ,;"n ofT,...,." Mothods
9.3 Pbysicochemical API'~cal;on' ofTr.>ecr M01hods 239
9.3.1 Solubility Mc",urcnlCnU 239
9.3.2 ~1.a.u"''''''n'' of 1"" R.te of Migrmion. Dirf"''''n. nnd
St:lf-Diffu,i"n ""
9.3.3 I""ope E.<ch.n&c R"a"'ioo, 251
9.3.4 Study of Imorfadal Reaction, '"
".
9.3.5 COf'I""'ipil:nion
9.3.6 Tracer Techni,!"'" in Electrochcmimy 269
Funher Reading 270
10 Ibdlo- ond Nud. .. An~II<l' 273
10.1 R~di"".li,·~ 1<ow1""" Tr.o..... 273
10, 1.1 The ~1.""u"''''''nl of Concentrali"" U.i"; N"u,~1
Radioo«i,·c 1S<"l10pcS 273
10,1.2 Dclermin01i"" Yield of Scr"r~tion Rooc.ioo, by
Radio:",I;". Tr-.ars 2N
10.1.3 Solubilily Mca,u",n,,"ntS 276
10.1.4 RadiochromalOt:rap/l)' 276
10.1.5 Radiometric Titralion 276
10.1.6 h01op<" Dilmi011 Mclhod.. 279
10.2 Radi,,:tnal)"lical M<1hoos U.ing lioc l"leracli,," 0'-Radi'li<~1
wilh M.n~r 183
10,2.1 B.sicCOllCi'p!' 183
10.2.2 Anal)'tic.1 Melhods Usin, Imtdiation-, with Noutrons 1!!6
10.2.J Irradiatioo Wilh X-Roy and G.mma Phol0n5 302
•
10.2.4 lmoJialin" ",i,h Ekctmn and Ikla Radi",i"n '"
JO.2.5 lrr:>dialion wi,h Chargctl P:lrticles 312
)-imh..- lIe.dins '"
[[ Ind~strlKl Applic3tlo" ..r Radlooolopos 319
1l.J ImrodUC1ion .lI9
11.2 Tracer [n'-cOIillOlion, with Open RadioiOOlopc. 31'
11.2.1 The l'rin.ciplc, Typ. ., and Sen.ili,'ily of ,he Ra<iiOl""''''
Techni,1"C 320
11.2.2 Unsealed Radionudides U,;ed f. . r L.beling ill Indu"rial
T""", SruJie< 321
11.2.3 Expl()f'ali<)n ofLtal< 322
11.2A l)c'cnni ..... 'i()ll of 1-1""" R~lCl 314
0.,.,,'
11.2.5 Mea'urin, Volume anoJlor Ma<.< of l arge i,;".'
of SubMan"'" in Ck>~d E4"ip"",nl .H7
11.2.6 ["'-,,"igalion of 11<>1''''£"''';')' or Mi~("<",, .U8
J 1.2.7 Ch=c'eriuo,ion or Ma,,,rial Rowand Determination
mcI."
of Chemical Engine";ng P .... J30
11.2.8 Wear SlU<lic. 337
11.2.'1 Groundwate. I'low S,udi.. 338
II ..1 Ab''''plion and Sc~Il.ri", Me._em.nl' "i,n s"alcd
Radioacti<. Sour""" 339
11.3.1 Principle of the Me""Ur~m""I' 3.1~
11.3.2 Sealed Jc.diOOll.1ive Soortt. Used for M."'. .... menl 340
II.J.3 l.t:,·d lndicnlion of Mat~ri.b in T"nk~ 340
II.J.4 MllIeri,,1 Thid"". . IX'enn; ..... i. .n 341
11.3.5 Materi.l Densi,y IX'""ni .... ';on 344
11.3.6 Moii,uI'Il Con'en, [)r,e""i""lion 345
J 1.3.7 [nd .. "ri.1 R3di0ll1"phy 347
J l.3.g c;.,ologic.1 00...1101" u.s.ging wi,h Nudear MClhods 34~
Funher Rc.din~ JSO
IZ A" Inlroollclion W Nud.Dr Modici". 351
12.1 Field. of Nude", Medicine JS2
12.1.1 III Vi""Di.g""",i •., 352
12.1.2 III Vi ... , Diag"""ics JS2
12.1.3 Th.r.lPY with Un...,aled R:idimcth'c ""'p.,ralion< 353
12.2 The Role and A'pect' of Applying R3d;",,,,,,,, .. in Medicine 353
12.2.1 Comp.1ri~ 01 MCli>nds for In VII,., Mcawrcmcnt of
Conccn,,,,,iorllO .1S3
0>",,,,,,
12.2.2 McaSUIT""'" of T"",.rs aMl Ma'cri.b Inside
arg."i"" 0.1<"",,,
,b" by ':"',ern,1I
12.2.3 PrOOuc,ilm of Anilici.1 Radianudid<.
12.2.4 [low Do You Choooe ibdiocr:lccrs for Medicol
Applications? '"