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Theses and Dissertations Graduate School
2013
Notions of Spirits as Agents of Mental Illness
among the Akan of Ghana: A Cultural-
psychological Exploration
Annabella Opare-Henaku
Virginia Commonwealth University
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©ANNABELLA OPARE-HENAKU 2013
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Notions of spirits as agents of mental illness among the Akan of Ghana:
A cultural-psychological exploration
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in Psychology at Virginia Commonwealth University.
by
Annabella Opare-Henaku
M. Phil. in Health Promotion, University of Bergen, Norway, November, 2006
B. A. Psychology, University of Ghana, May, 2003
Director: Shawn O. Utsey
Professor of Psychology & Chair of African-American Studies
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia
May, 2013
ii
Acknowledgment
The author wishes to express gratitude to the following people for their contributions toward the
successful completion of this program. I owe a depth of gratitude to my husband, Robert Osei-
Tutu, for the sacrifices he made in order for me to complete this program. I would like to thank
my family for not allowing geographical distance to prevent them from being emotionally
present with me over the course of these five years.
I would like to thank Dr. Ustey for his direction and guidance during the course of my study. I
am thankful to my dissertation committee members, Dr. Faye Belgrave, Dr. Vivian Dzokoto,
Dr. Kathy Ingram, and Dr. Micah McCreary for their interest and valuable feedback which
enriched the work.
I would also like to thank Lionel Sakyi for his timely assistance with the data collection. Many
thanks go to Jemimah Opare-Henaku and Zumreta Dudic for their assistance with the project.
My thanks go to my cohort, Chelsea Greer, Brad Antonides, David Guion, and Stephen Trapp
for their support throughout these years. I would also like to thank Dr. Suzanne Tete for her
moral support.
Last but not the least, I am thankful for the support I received from the University of Ghana,
Legon, to complete this program.
iii
Dedication
To my daughter Nana Akyaa Osei-Tutu
iv
Table of Contents
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................vi
Abstract…….. ...............................................................................................................................vii
Introduction… ..................................................................................................................................1
The Akan People of Ghana…..............................................................................................3
Background to the Study .....................................................................................................4
Statement of the Problem.....................................................................................................5
Literature Review.............................................................................................................................7
Theoretical Framework........................................................................................................7
Conceptual Framework: The Akan Worldview.................................................................16
Related Studies...................................................................................................................18
Aims of the Study..............................................................................................................25
Methods..........................................................................................................................................26
Grounded Theory…….......................................................................................................26
Rationale for the Study......................................................................................................27
The Study Setting...............................................................................................................28
Participants….....................................................................................................................29
Role of the Researcher.......................................................................................................30
Role of the Research Assistant..........................................................................................31
Procedure...........................................................................................................................32
Data Analyses....................................................................................................................34
Validity and Reliability .....................................................................................................37
Results............................................................................................................................................41
Definition of Mental Illness...............................................................................................41
Local Labels for Mental Illness.........................................................................................41
Abᴐdam/Adambᴐ...................................................................................................41
v
Ogyefo/W’bᴐgye ....................................................................................................41
Adwenemuka. ……................................................................................................41
Bᴐdam ani te…………..........................................................................................41
Gyimigyimi ............................................................................................................41
Development, Forms, and Behavioral Markers.................................................................46
Mental illness in children.......................................................................................46
Mental illness in adults…………………..............................................................46
Causes of Mental Illness....................................................................................................52
Problems of living..................................................................................................52
Biological/environmental.......................................................................................52
Spiritual..................................................................................................................52
Spiritual indulgences ................................................................................52
Curses .......................................................................................................52
Punishment from the Supreme Being.…...................................................52
Punishment from oracle.............................................................................52
.
Wicked spirits............................................................................................52
Substance abuse.………........................................................................................52
Multiple causes......................................................................................................52
Care and Treatment............................................................................................................64
Choice of treatment................................................................................................64
Generational Differences...................................................................................................76
Discussion......................................................................................................................................78
Akan Conceptions of Mental Illness..................................................................................78
Mental Illness: A Mechanism of Spiritual Retribution......................................................87
Response to the Mentally Ill..............................................................................................88
Implications....................................................................................................................................92
Cultural Context and Mental Illness……..........................................................................92
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................96
vi
Future Direction….............................................................................................................96
References......................................................................................................................................98
Appendices...................................................................................................................................105
Appendix 1: Demographic Information……...................................................................105
Appendix 2: Initial Interview Guide………………………………................................106
Appendix 3: Sample of Questions Generated During the Interviews..............................107
Appendix 4: Sample Forward-Backward Translation….................................................108
Vita……………...........................................................................................................................109
vii
List of Figures
1. The Analytic Process…………………….……………………………………………………35
Description:Tutu, for the sacrifices he made in order for me to complete this program. Stace's (1960) conceptualization of a unifying mystical ontology is very
