Table Of ContentRIJKSUNIVERSITEIT GRONINGEN
Njáls saga and its Christian Background
A Study of Narrative Method
Proefschrift
Ter verkrijging van het doctoraat in de
Letteren
aan de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen
op gezag van de
Rector Magnificus, dr. F. Zwarts,
in het openbaar te verdedigen op
14 januari 2008
om 16:15 uur
door
Andrew Joseph Hamer
geboren op 9 mei 1946
te Blackpool (Groot-Brittannië)
Promotor: Prof. dr. A.A. MacDonald
Beoordelingscommissie: Prof. dr. R.H. Bremmer Jr.
Prof. dr. T. Hofstra
Prof. dr. A.M. Swanson
ISBN: 978-90-367-3313-7
Contents
Table of Contents p. i
Preface p. iv
Abbreviations p. v
Introduction
0.1 The Íslendingasögur: convention and creativity p. 1
0.2 The question of origins p. 3
0.3 Early vernacular prose in Iceland p. 4
0.4 The oral background p. 6
0.5 Njáls saga p. 8
0.6 Njáls saga and its sources p. 11
0.7 Njáls saga and Laxdœla saga p. 17
Chapter 1: Laxdœla saga: shipwreck and salvation
1.1 Text and author p. 21
1.2 Shipwrecks and drownings p. 30
1.3 Þorkell Eyjólfsson and Kjartan Óláfsson p. 33
1.4 The death of Þorkell Eyjólfsson p. 36
1.5 The penitence of Guðrún Ósvífrsdóttir p. 38
iii
1.6 The death of Kjartan Óláfsson p. 45
1.7 Unnr and Guðrún p. 49
1.8 Conclusions p. 52
Chapter 2: Pre-Christian Society in Njáls saga
2.1 Introductory p. 55
2.2 Law and legal judgement p. 56
2.3 Honouring one’s debts: Hrútr Herjólfsson p. 59
2.4 Vengeance and Feud p. 62
2.5 Hallgerðr H skuldsdóttir p. 67
Q
2.6 The curse on Hrútr Herjólfsson p. 75
2.7 The conflict over Unnr’s dowry p. 85
2.8 Conclusions p. 88
Chapter 3: Justice and Mercy
3.1 Introductory p. 90
3.2 Haraldr Greycloak and Brian Boru p. 92
3.3 The battle of Clontarf p. 95
3.4 The conversion of Síðu-Hallr p. 100
3.5 Njáls saga and other accounts of the Conversion of Iceland p. 101
3.6 Hallr’s demands p. 108
3.7 Michaelmas p. 111
3.8 Hallr’s humility p. 113
3.9 Þórhallr Ásgrímsson: justice at the Alþingi p. 118
3.10 Last-minute repentance: Ingjaldr of Keldur p. 123
3.11 The blind Ámundi H skuldsson p. 124
Q
3.12 Conclusions p. 133
Chapter 4: Metaphors of growth and productivity
4.1 Introductory p. 135
4.2 The bleikir akrar of Hlíðarendi p. 135
4.3 Metaphors of poor harvest p. 143
4.4 Þangbrandr and the seed of God’s word p. 145
iv
4.5 M rðr Valgarðsson p. 153
Q
4.6 Weeds at Bergþórshváll p. 155
4.7 Flosi Þórðarson p. 161
4.8 Conclusions p. 170
Chapter 5: Reaping anger and sowing love
5.1 The saga’s bipartite structure p. 172
5.2 Two sowing scenes p. 173
5.3 Gunnarr’s fall p. 176
5.4 The falling horse p. 182
5.5 The death of H skuldr Hvítanessgoði p. 186
Q
5.6 A suggested source for the death of H skuldr p. 190
Q
5.7 The death of Gunnarr p. 198
5.8 A suggested source for the bipartite structure p. 201
Chapter 6: The Burning: Njáll and Skarpheðinn
6.1 Introductory p. 208
6.2 Background: Njáll welcomes Christianity p. 209
6.3 Njáll’s fatal decisions p. 216
6.4 Skarpheðinn and the chieftains p. 222
6.5 Skarpheðinn and Víga-Hrappr Qrgumleiðason p. 223
6.6 Skarpheðinn and the universal debt p. 225
6.7 Skarpheðinn and the berserk Ótryggr p. 228
6.8 Skarpheðinn’s death p. 231
6.9 Skarpheðinn and the penitent thief p. 234
6.10 Njáll’s death p. 241
6.11 Conclusions p. 245
Chapter 7: Closing Remarks
7.1 Conclusions from the study p. 247
7.1.i Njáls saga and Laxdœla saga p. 247
7.1.ii The author’s creativity p. 248
7.1.iii The theme of judgement p. 249
7.1.iv The author’s learning p. 251
v
7.2 A suggestion concerning the saga’s early reception p. 252
Bibliography p. 265
Summary p. 291
Nederlandse samenvatting p. 296
vi
Preface
This study has greatly benefited from the interest, encouragement and comments of
many colleagues, including two anonymous readers who supplied helpful comments
on an earlier draft. I am grateful to more former and current members of the
University of Liverpool’s School of English than can be individually named here,
though I must acknowledge particular debts to Professor Philip Davis, Dr Gillian
Rudd and Professor Jocelyn Wogan-Browne, all of whom have given this work more
time and attention than I had a right to expect.
My thanks are due to the members of the Beoordelingscommissie, Prof. dr. R.H.
Bremmer Jr., Prof. dr. T. Hofstra, and Prof. dr. A.M. Swanson, for their careful
reading of this work; and to my paranymphs, Roald van Elswijk and Tom Wilcox,
who have worked so effectively on my behalf. Finally, it is a pleasure to be able to
record my gratitude to my Promotor, Prof. dr. A.A. MacDonald, whose constant
encouragement made writing this study a lot easier.
A.J.H.
Quotations from Njáls saga and Laxdœla saga are from the editions by Einar Ólafur
Sveinsson, referenced by page number in brackets: Laxdœla saga: Íslenzk Fornrit (ÍF)
5, 1934; Brennu-Njáls saga: ÍF 12, 1954.
English translations are quoted from Laxdœla Saga, translated with an Introduction by Magnus Magnusson
and Hermann Pálsson (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1969); frequent reference has also been made to
The Saga of the people of Laxardal, trans. Keneva Kunz, The Sagas of Icelanders (Leifur Eiríksson
Publishing Ltd., 1997, repr. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 2000). Translations of passages from Njáls
saga are quoted from Njal’s Saga, translated by Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson (Harmonds-
worth: Penguin Books, 1960), and from Njal’s Saga, translated with Introduction and Notes by Robert
Cook, The Sagas of Icelanders (Leifur Eiríksson Publishing Ltd., 1997, repr. Harmondsworth: Penguin
Books, 2001). It should be noted that the translations have sometimes been altered to be made more literal.
vii
Abbreviations
Acta SS: Acta Sanctorum
ANF: Arkiv för nordisk filologi.
APS: Acta Philologica Scandinavica.
BONIS: Bibliography of Old Norse-Icelandic Studies.
CCSL: Corpus Christianorum Series Latina.
Cleasby-Vigfusson: An Icelandic-English Dictionary, initiated by Richard Cleasby,
subsequently revised, enlarged and completed by Gudbrand Vigfusson, M.A., Second
Edition, with a Supplement by Sir William Craigie (Oxford: Clarendon, 1969).
CSEL: Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum.
Eighth International Saga Conference: Preprints of the Eighth International Saga
Conference, (Göteborg Universität, 1991).
First International Saga Conference: Proceedings of the First International Saga
Conference, University of Edinburgh, 1971, eds. Peter Foote, Hermann Pálsson and
Desmond Slay (London: Viking Society, 1973).
Fourth International Saga Conference: Fourth International Saga Conference, München,
July 30th – August 4th 1979: Summaries, Papers (München: Institut für Nordische
Philologie der Universität München, 1979); and Discussions (München 1980): no page
references for Summaries, Papers, but papers printed alphabetically by authors’ names.
Flat: Flateyjarbók
GNH: Gamal Norsk Homiliebok, ed. Gustav Indrebø (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1931;
repr. 1966).
HMS: Heilagra Manna Søgur. Fortællinger og Legender om Hellige Mænd og Kvinder,
ed. C. R. Unger (Christiania, 1877).
ÍF: Íslenzk Fornrit (Reykjavík: Hið Íslenzka Fornritafélag).
JEGP: Journal of English and Germanic Philology.
KLNM: Kulturhistorisk Leksikon for Nordisk Middelalder (Copenhagen, 1956-78).
NPNF: A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church,
ed. Philip Schaff (Grand Rapids, Michigan, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company,
1956).
PL: Patrologiae latinae cursus completus, ed. J-P. Migne (Paris, 1844-64).
viii
Post: Postola Sögur. Legendariske Fortællinger om Apostlernes Liv, ed. C. R. Unger
(Christiania, 1874).
Reallexikon: Johannes Hoops, Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, 2nd
edition, eds. Heinrich Beck, Dieter Geuenich, Heiko Steuer (Berlin and New York:
Walter de Gruyter).
Saga-Book: Saga-Book of the Viking Society.
Sagnaheimur: Sagnaheimur: Studies in Honour of Hermann Pálsson on his 80th
birthday, 26th May 2001, eds. Ásdís Egilsdóttir and R. Simek, Studia Medievalia
Septentrionalia 6 (Vienna: Fassbaender, 2001).
Sagnaskemmtun: Sagnaskemmtun: Studies in Honour of Hermann Pálsson on his 65th
birthday, 26th May 1986, eds. R. Simek, Jónas Kristjánsson, and H. Bekker-Nielsen
(Vienna, Cologne, Graz: Hermann Böhlaus, 1986).
Sagnaþing: Sagnaþing helgað Jónasi Kristjánssyni sjötugum 10. apríl 1994, 2 vols., eds.
Gísli Sigurðsson, Guðrún Kvaran, and Sigurgeir Steingrímsson (Reykjavík: Hið íslenska
bókmenntafélag, 1994).
Samtíðarsögur: Samtíðarsögur: The Contemporary Sagas (Preprints of the Ninth
International Saga Conference), 2 vols., eds. Sverrir Tómasson et al. (Akureyri, 1994).
Seventh International Saga Conference: Poetry in the Scandinavian Middle Ages (Papers
presented at the Seventh International Saga Conference, Spoleto, 4-10 September 1988,
Spoleto, 1990).
Sixth International Saga Conference: The Sixth International Saga Conference, 28/7 –
2/8/ 1985: Workshop Papers, 2 vols. (Copenhagen: Det arnamagnæanske Institut, 1985)
SS: Scandinavian Studies.
ZdA: Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur.
ZdP: Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie.
ix
