Nitrogen Fixation in Agriculture, Forestry, Ecology, and the Environment

361 Pages·2007·3.83 MB·English

Nitrogen Fixation in Agriculture, Forestry, Ecology,
and the Environment
Nitrogen Fixation: Origins, Applications, and Research Progress
VOLUME 4
Nitrogen Fixation in
Agriculture, Forestry,
Ecology, and the
Environment
Edited by
Dietrich Werner
Philipps-University,
Marburg, Germany
and
William E. Newton
Department of Biochemistry,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia, U.S.A.
AC.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN-10 1-4020-3542-X (HB)
ISBN-10 1-4020-3544-6 (e-book)
ISBN-13 978-1-4020-3542-9 (HB)
ISBN-13 978-1-4020-3544-5 (e-book)
Published by Springer,
P.O. Box 17, 3300 AADordrecht, The Netherlands.
www.springeronline.com
Background figure caption:
“Aseed crop of clover (Trifolium hirtum) in flower near Moora, Western Australia. Photograph courtesy
of Mike Davies, Senior Technical Officer, Pasture Research Group of Agriculture WAand reproduced with
permission.”
Vol. 4-specific figure caption:
“First year soybean cultivation from a field trial in Puerto Rico with both inoculated and non-inoculated
rows. Photograph courtesy of R. Stewart Smith, Nitragin Company, USA, and reproduced with
permission.”
Printed on acid-free paper
All Rights Reserved
© 2005 Springer
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Printed in the Netherlands
TABLEOFCONTENTS
Series Preface. . . . ................................................ ix
Preface......................................................... xiii
ListofContributors............................................... xvii
Chapter1.ProductionandBiologicalNitrogenFixationofTropicalLegumes
D.Werner ....... ............................................... 1
1.Introduction............................................ 1
2.Phaseolussp.andVignasp.(Beans) ......................... 2
3.Arachishypogaea(Groundnut,Peanut) ....................... 7
4.Cicerarietinum(Chickpea)................................ 8
5.Cajanuscajan(Pigeonpea) ............................... 9
6.Mucunapruriens(Velvetbean)andOtherLegumes............ 10
Acknowledgements....................................... 12
References.............................................. 12
Chapter2.NitrogenFixationbySoybeaninNorthAmerica
S.G.Pueppke.................................................... 15
1.Soybean:PathwaystoNorthAmericaand
EstablishmentasaCrop................................ 15
2.SoybeanProductioninNorthAmerica....................... 17
3.MajorSoybeanCroppingSystems.......................... 20
4.BiologicalNitrogenFixationbySoybeaninNorthAmerica ..... 20
5.Perspectives........................................... 21
Acknowledgements....................................... 22
References............................................... 22
Chapter3.TheImportanceofNitrogenFixationtoSoybeanCropping
inSouthAmerica
M.Hungria,J.C.Franchini,R.J.CampoandP.H.Graham.............. 25
1.Introduction........................................... 25
2.Taxonomy,Origins,andImportanceofSoybean .............. 25
3.BiologicalNitrogenFixation.............................. 29
4.EconomicImportanceofBiologicalNitrogenFixation(BNF)
inSouthAmerica...................................... 32
5.CropManagementinSouthAmerica........................ 34
6.FinalConsiderations .................................... 38
Acknowledgement........................................ 39
References.............................................. 39
Chapter4.Production,RegionalDistributionofCultivars,andAgricultural
AspectsofSoybeaninIndia
S.K.Mahna.................................................... 43
1.IntroductionandHistoricalBackground..................... 43
v
vi
2.All-IndiaAreaCoverage,Productivity,andProductionof
Soybeanbetween1970-2003............................ 45
3.All-IndiaState-wiseAreaCoverage,Productivity,and
ProductionofSoybean ................................. 46
4.RegionalDistributionofSoybeanCultivars.................. 49
5.RegionalAgriculturalAspectsofSoybeanCultivation.......... 59
Acknowledgements...................................... 64
References............................................. 64
Chapter5.SoybeanCultivationandBNFinChina
J.E.RuizSainz,J.C.Zhou,D.-N.Rodriguez-Navarro,J.M.Vinardell
andJ.E.Thomas-Oates ........................................... 67
1.Summary............................................. 67
2.SoybeanCultivationinChina:HistoricalAspects
andCurrentSituation.................................. 68
3.Nitrogen-FixingBacteriathatNodulateSoybean.............. 75
4.TheSoybeanGermplasmCollectioninChina................ 81
5.SoybeaninCropRotationandinContinuousCultivation . . . . . . . 82
6.Conclusions........................................... 84
Acknowledgement........................................ 85
References............................................... 85
Chapter6.SoilStressFactorsInfluencingSymbioticNitrogenFixation
M.J.Sadowsky.................................................. 89
1.Introduction........................................... 89
2.ImportanceofSymbioticNitrogenFixation................... 89
3.SymbioticInteractionofLegumeswithRhizobia.............. 90
4.NodulationandNitrogen-FixationGeneticsinthe
RhizobiaandBradyrhizobia............................. 92
5.RhizobiaintheSoilEnvironment.......................... 94
6.StressFactorsintheSoilEnvironmentthatInfluenceN Fixation.. 95
2
7.ConcludingRemarks.................................... 101
References.............................................. 102
Chapter7.NodulatedLegumeTrees
J.I.Sprent..................................................... 113
1.Introduction............................................113
2.Leguminosae.......................................... 113
3.RhizobiathatNodulateLegumeTrees..................... . 133
4.TypesofNodule formed on Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.MycorrhizasandOtherNutrient-AcquisitionSystems.......... 135
6.MeasurementofNitrogenFixationbyTrees.................. 136
7.RoleofLegumeTreesinNaturalandManagedSystems........ 137
References.............................................. 139
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Chapter8.NitrogenFixingTreeswithActinorhizainForestryandAgroforestry
R.O.Russo.................................................... 143
1.Introduction........................................... 143
2.GeneralCharacteristicsoftheActinorhizalSymbiosis.......... 144
3.HostBotanicalFamilies................................. 148
4.NitrogenFixationinActinorhizalTrees......................149
5.MycorrhizalAssociationswithActinorhizalTrees............ . 153
6.ActinorhizalTreesinAgroforestry......................... 157
7.TheGenusCasuarina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.TheExperienceoftheCentralAmericaFuelwoodProject....... 159
9.TheCaseofAlnusacuminatainTropicalHighlands........... 161
10.OtherUsesofActinorhizalTrees......................... 163
11.ConcludingConsiderations.............................. 164
References.............................................. 165
Chapter9.MolecularEcologyofN -fixingMicrobesAssociatedwith
2
GramineousPlants:HiddenActivitiesofUnknownBacteria
T.HurekandB.Reinhold-Hurek.................................... 173
1.Introduction........................................... 173
2.TheProblemofIdentifyingKeyDiazotrophicBacteria
inGramineousPlants:TheClassicalApproach.............. 174
3.TheSignificanceofDiazotrophicGrassEndophytes........... 176
4.TheSignificanceofCulture-IndependentMethods............. 179
5.TheSignificanceofnifH-TargetedMethods.................. 180
6.LimitationsofnifH-TargetedMethods...................... 181
7.ManyDiazotrophsDefyCultivation........................ 183
8.DiazotrophicGrassEndophytesasKeyOrganismsfor
BNFinGramineousPlants.............................. 185
9.SummaryandOutlook................................... 189
References.............................................. 191
Chapter10.InteractionsofArbuscularMycorrhizaandNitrogen-Fixing
SymbiosisinSustainableAgriculture
J.M.Barea,D.Werner,C.Azcón-GuilarandR.Azcón.................. 199
1.Introduction........................................... 199
2.PurposeofReview...................................... 200
3.Nitrogen-FixingSymbioses............................... 201
4.ArbuscularMycorrhiza...................................202
5.InteractionsbetweenAMFungiandRhizobiatoImprove
LegumeProductivityinAgriculture....................... 205
6.Conclusions........................................... 214
Acknowledgements....................................... 215
References.............................................. 215
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Chapter11.InoculantPreparation,ProductionandApplication
M.Hungria,M.F.Loureiro,I.C.Mendes,R.J.CampoandP.H.Graham... 223
1.Introduction............................................223
2.StrainSelection.........................................224
3.InoculantProduction.....................................230
4.InoculantApplication.................................... 237
5.FactorsAffectingtheSuccessofInoculation................. 240
6.MainConclusions....................................... 245
Acknowledgements........................................246
References...............................................246
Chapter12.NitrifyingBacteria
C.Fiencke,E.SpieckandE.Bock................................... 255
1.NitrificationasPartoftheNitrogenCycle................... 255
2.TwoPhysiologicalGroupsofBacteriaContributetoNitrification..257
3.EcologyandDetectionofNitrifyingBacteria................. 258
4.MetabolismofNitrifyingBacteria.......................... 260
References...............................................270
Chapter13.TheNitrogenCycle:DenitrificationanditsRelationship
toN Fixation
2
R.J.M.vanSpanning,M.J.DelgadoandD.J.Richardson............... 277
1.Introduction............................................277
2.TheNitrogenCycle......................................279
3.Denitrification..........................................281
4.BacterialRespiratoryNitrateReductases..................... 282
5.NitriteReductases.......................................296
6.NitricOxideReductases.................................. 301
7.NitrousOxideReductase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
8.LinkageoftheDenitrificationGeneClusters..................307
9.BioenergeticsofDenitrification............................ 310
10.RegulationofTranscriptionofDenitrificationGenes.......... 312
11.RegulationofDenitrificationbyEnvironmentalFactors....... 320
12.DiversityofDenitrification...............................321
13.YeastandFungalDenitrification.......................... 325
14.ConcludingRemarks................................... 327
Acknowledgements....................................... 327
References.............................................. 327
SubjectIndex....................................................343
SERIESPREFACE
NitrogenFixation:Origins,Applications,andResearchProgress
Nitrogen fixation, along with photosynthesis as the energy supplier, is the basis of
all life on Earth (and maybe elsewhere too!). Nitrogen fixation provides the basic
component, fixed nitrogen as ammonia, of two major groups of macromolecules,
namely nucleic acids and proteins. Fixed nitrogen is required for the N-containing
heterocycles (or bases) that constitute the essential coding entities of
deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) and ribonucleic acids (RNA), which are responsible
for the high-fidelity storage and transfer of genetic information, respectively. It is
also required for the amino-acid residues of the proteins, which are encoded bythe
DNAandthatactuallydothe workinlivingcells. Attheturnofthemillennium,it
seemed to me that now was as good a time as any(and maybe better than most) to
lookback,particularlyover thelast100 yearsor so,and ponderjust what hadbeen
achieved. What is the state of our knowledge of nitrogen fixation, both biological
and abiological? How has this knowledge been used and what are its impacts on
humanity?
In an attempt to answer these questions and to capture the essence of our
current knowledge, I devised a seven-volume series, which was designed to cover
allaspectsofnitrogen-fixationresearch. Ithenapproachedmylong-timecontactat
Kluwer AcademicPublishers, AdPlaizier, withtheidea. Ihad worked withAdfor
many years on the publication of the Proceedings of most of the International
CongressesonNitrogen Fixation. Mypersonalbeliefis thatcongresses, symposia,
and workshops must not be closed shops and that those of us unable to attend
shouldhaveaccesstothematerialpresented. Mysolutionistocapturethematerial
in print in the form of proceedings. So it was quite natural for me to turn to the
printed word for this detailed review of nitrogen fixation. Ad’s immediate
affirmation of the project encouraged me to share my initial design with many of
my current co-editors and, with their assistance, to develop the detailed contents of
eachofthesevenvolumesandtoenlistprospectiveauthorsforeachchapter.
There are many ways in which the subject matter could be divided. Our
decision was to break it down as follows: nitrogenases, commercial processes, and
relevant chemical models; genetics and regulation; genomes and genomics;
associative, endophytic, and cyanobacterial systems; actinorhizal associations;
leguminous symbioses; and agriculture, forestry, ecology, and the environment. I
feel very fortunate to have beenable to recruit some outstandingresearchersasco-
editors for this project. My co-editors were Mike Dilworth, Claudine Elmerich,
John Gallon, Euan James, Werner Klipp, Bernd Masepohl, Rafael Palacios,
Katharina Pawlowski, Ray Richards, Barry Smith, Janet Sprent, and Dietrich
Werner. They worked very hard and ably and were most willing to keep the
volumes moving along reasonably close to our initial timetable. All have been a
pleasuretoworkwithandIthankthemallfortheirsupportandunflagginginterest.
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