Table Of ContentNew Dictionary of Scientific Biography
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Published by special arrangement with the
American Council of Learned Societies
The American Council of Learned Societies, organized in 1919 for the purpose of advancing the study of the humanities
and of the humanistic aspects of the social sciences, is a nonprofit federation comprising thirty-three national scholarly
groups. The Council represents the humanities in the United States in the International Union of Academies, provides
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MEMBER ORGANIZATIONS
American Philosophical Society, 1743 Society of Architectural Historians, 1940
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1780 Association for Asian Studies, 1941
American Antiquarian Society, 1812 American Society for Aesthetics, 1942
American Oriental Society, 1842 American Association for the Advancement of
American Numismatic Society, 1858 Slavic Studies, 1948
American Philological Association, 1869
American Studies Association, 1950
Archaeological Institute of America, 1879
Metaphysical Society of America, 1950
Society of Biblical Literature, 1880
North American Conference on British Studies,
Modern Language Association of America, 1883
1950
American Historical Association, 1884
American Society of Comparative Law, 1951
American Economic Association, 1885
Renaissance Society of America, 1954
American Folklore Society, 1888
Society for Ethnomusicology, 1955
American Society of Church History, 1888
Society for French Historical Studies, 1956
American Dialect Society, 1889
International Center of Medieval Art, 1956
American Psychological Association, 1892
American Society for Legal History, 1956
Association of American Law Schools, 1900
American Philosophical Association, 1900 American Society for Theatre Research, 1956
American Schools of Oriental Research, 1900 African Studies Association, 1957
American Anthropological Association, 1902 Society for the History of Technology, 1958
American Political Science Association, 1903 Society for Cinema and Media Studies, 1959
Bibliographical Society of America, 1904 American Comparative Literature Association,
Association of American Geographers, 1904 1960
Hispanic Society of America, 1904 Law and Society Association, 1964
American Sociological Association, 1905 Middle East Studies Association of North America,
American Society of International Law, 1906 1966
Organization of American Historians, 1907
Latin American Studies Association, 1966
American Academy of Religion, 1909
Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies,
College Forum of the National Council of Teachers
1968
of English, 1911
American Society for Eighteenth Century Studies,
Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian
1969
Study, 1911
Association for Jewish Studies, 1969
College Art Association, 1912
Sixteenth Century Society and Conference, 1970
National Communication Association, 1914
Society for American Music, 1975
History of Science Society, 1924
Dictionary Society of North America, 1975
Linguistic Society of America, 1924
Medieval Academy of America, 1925 German Studies Association, 1976
American Association for the History of Medicine, American Society for Environmental History, 1976
1925 Society for Music Theory, 1977
American Musicological Society, 1934 National Council on Public History, 1979
Economic History Association, 1940 Society of Dance History Scholars, 1979
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New Dictionary of Scientific Biography
VOLUME 3
FAIREY–HYPATIA
Noretta Koertge
EDITOR IN CHIEF
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New Dictionary of Scientific Biography
Noretta Koertge
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
New dictionary of scientific biography / Noretta Koertge, editor in chief.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-684-31320-7 (set : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-684-31321-4 (vol. 1 : alk.
paper)—ISBN 978-0-684-31322-1 (vol. 2 : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-684-31323-8 (vol. 3 :
alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-684-31324-5 (vol. 4 : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-684-31325-2 (vol. 5 :
alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-684-31326-9 (vol. 6 : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-684-31327-6 (vol. 7 :
alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-684-31328-3 (vol. 8 : alk. paper)
1. Scientists—Biography—Dictionaries. I. Koertge, Noretta.
Q141.N45 2008
509.2'2—dc22
[B]
2007031384
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Editorial Board
EDITOR IN CHIEF
Noretta Koertge
Indiana University, Department of History and Philosophy of Science
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
William Bechtel James Capshew David L. Hull
Jane Maienschein John Norton Eric R. Scerri
Brian Skyrms Michael M. Sokal Spencer Weart
SUBJECT EDITORS
William Bechtel James H. Capshew Matthew Goodrum
University of California, San Diego, Indiana University at Bloomington, Virginia Tech, Department of Science
Department of Philosophy and Department of History and and Technology in Society
Science Studies Program Philosophy of Science
PALEOANTHROPOLOGY
LIFE SCIENCES PSYCHOLOGY
Jeremy Gray
Stephen Bocking
Steven J. Dick The Open University, United
Trent University, Ontario,
Environmental and Resource Studies National Aeronautics and Space Kingdom, Department of Mathematics
Program Administration MATHEMATICS AND LOGIC
ECOLOGY SPACE SCIENCE
Valerie Gray Hardcastle
James Fleming
Theodore Brown University of Cincinnati, McMicken
Colby College, Science, Technology,
University of Illinois at Urbana-
College of Arts and Sciences
and Society Program
Champaign, Department of
Chemistry and Beckman Institute METEOROLOGY, HYDROLOGY, COGNITIVE AND
CHEMISTRY OCEANOGRAPHY NEUROSCIENCE
Lillian Hoddeson
Richard Burkhardt Gregory A. Good
University of Illinois at Urbana- West Virginia University, Department University of Illiniois at Urbana-
Champaign, Department of History of History Champaign, Department of History
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS PHYSICS
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Editorial Board
Ernst Homburg Jane Maienschein Robert Smith
Universiteit Maastricht, The Arizona State University, School of University of Alberta, Department of
Netherlands, Department of History Life Sciences, Center for Biology and
History and Classics
CHEMISTRY Society
ASTRONOMY AND
LIFE SCIENCES
David L. Hull ASTROPHYSICS
Northwestern University, Department Elizabeth Paris
of Philosophy Independent Scholar
Stephen Weininger
LIFE SCIENCES PHYSICS
Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
Helge Kragh Carsten Reinhardt Department of Chemistry and
University of Aarhus, Denmark, Steno University of Bielefeld, Germany, Biochemistry
Department for Studies of Science and Institute for Science and Technology
CHEMISTRY
Science Education Studies
COSMOLOGY CHEMISTRY
Paul Weirich
Michael S. Mahoney John Rigden
University of Missouri-Columbia,
Princeton University, Department of Washington University in St. Louis,
Computer Science Department of Physics Department of Philosophy
COMPUTER SCIENCE PHYSICS DECISION AND GAME THEORY
CONSULTING EDITORS
Garland E. Allen Alexander Jones Lynn Nyhart
Washington University, St. Louis, University of Toronto, Department of University of Wisconsin at Madison,
Department of Biology Classics Department of the History of Science
Domenico Bertoloni Meli William Newman
Juergen Renn
Indiana University, Center for the Indiana University, Department of
Max Planck Institute for the History
History of Medicine History and Philosophy of Science
of Science, Berlin
Craig Fraser Vivian Nutton
University of Toronto, Institute for the University College London, Wellcome Johannes M. M. H. Thijssen
History and Philosophy of Science and Trust Centre for the History of Radboud University Nijmegen,
Technology Medicine Faculty of Philosophy
ASSISTANT TO THE EDITOR IN CHIEF
Anne Mylott
Indiana University, Department of History and Philosophy of Science
VI NEW DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC BIOGRAPHY
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F
FAIREY, JOHN been founded in 1799 as a philanthropic initiative for
improving the scientific education of craftsmen and prac-
SEEFarey, John.
titioners, but quickly developed into a meeting point for
the middle and upper class. Its finances depended largely
on the income of the public lectures it offered, and hence
on finding lecturers that attracted a substantial audience.
FARADAY, MICHAEL (b. Newington Butts,
In that respect, Faraday was as great a success as Humphry
Surrey [now London], England, 22 September 1791, d.
Davy had been before him. The Friday evening and the
Hampton Green Court, Middlesex, England, 25 August
Christmas juvenile lecture series (founded in 1826 and
1867), electricity and magnetism, chemistry. For the origi-
1827, respectively) were essentially his creation and much
nal article on Faraday see DSB,vol. 4.
shaped by him.
Faraday’s contributions to electricity and magnetism
Pushed by Davy, and well beyond the needs of lectur-
shaped nineteenth-century physics fundamentally, opened
ing, the Royal Institution had installed a well-equipped
the possibility of a wider use of electric power, and laid the
laboratory and a library, in a period when the very idea of
origin of field theory. Both for his contemporaries and for
such laboratories was new and just starting to be realized.
modern science studies, his experimental approach and
The Royal Institution’s facility, well apt for cutting-edge
unorthodox concepts have been challenging. At his time,
research, developed into one of the best-equipped labora-
his fame rested as much on his lecturing and counseling in
tories of the period, competing with places such as the
public service as on his research.
Paris École Polytechnique. Faraday thus had unrestricted
Since the 1980s, Faraday studies have shifted their access to a unique resource of experimental research, a sit-
focus from Faraday’s ideas, experimental discoveries, and uation that he himself strongly endorsed and of which he
intellectual influences toward the practice of his life, took significant advantage. Both the lecture hall (where he
research, and religion. As a result, a new picture has spent much time) and the apartment he shared with his
emerged, and it has become clear that the degree to which wife Sarah were in the Royal Institution’s building, hence
Faraday’s research was preshaped by philosophical ideas he could easily switch between work and home, research
about the nature of matter and force had been consider- and lecturing, at least as long he was not interrupted by
ably overestimated. This update article focuses on how his one of the many visitors calling for information. Of
generation of knowledge—experimental, practical, con- course, this was not a situation without tensions. Faraday’s
ceptual, theoretical—was connected to, and shaped by, income at the Royal Institution was certainly not ade-
the other aspects of his life. quate, given the benefits he provided for the institution.
However, he lived a modest life, even at the height of his
Working in the Royal Institution. Faraday’s lifelong fame, and gave the surplus mostly to charity. Nevertheless,
working site, the Royal Institution of Great Britain, had his continued (and well-paid) teaching at the Royal Mili-
NEW DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC BIOGRAPHY 1
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Faraday Faraday
tary Academy at Woolwich for more than two decades
was, among others, a deliberate step to lessen his financial
dependence on one single institution with insecure finan-
cial standing. Moreover, combining living and work in
one and the same house for a whole life was not necessar-
ily a favorable arrangement. That Faraday was able to turn
it into great success had also to do with the fact that his
life had, besides work, also a second focus: his being part
of the Sandemanian community—a life that took place
outside the Royal Institution and in which, contrasted to
his research and lecturing, Sarah took part equally.
To a far larger extent than hitherto realized, Faraday
was active in public service. More than 10 percent of all of
his correspondence deals with lighthouses alone, stem-
ming from his work for Trinity House (from 1836 on).
He was scientific adviser to the Admiralty, the Home
Office, the Board of Trade, the Office of Woods and
Forests, and the Board of Ordnance. These projects
ranged from a gunpowder factory explosion to conserva-
tion issues of works of art. His inquiry into the devastat-
ing explosion at Haswell Colliery (1844) was a key event
in the relationship of science and politics and in labor his-
tory—it is cited by Friedrich Engels for example.
The situation at the Royal Institution (which he him-
self had considerably shaped and stabilized), his enormous
success as a public lecturer and scientific advisor, and his
religious life combined to form a peculiar and very specific
Michael Faraday. Michael Faraday, circa 1865. HULTON
constellation—a constellation that gave him much inner
ARCHIVE/GETTY IMAGES.
and outer stability and relieved him to a considerable
degree from the compulsion of scientific competition.
This was an important element of his capacity to pursue
variation of experimental parameters, with the goal of
his own ideas and conceptualizations, even through long
finding constant correlations and establishing laws.
periods of nonresponse or rejection from the academic
Explaining a specific effect meant to him, first of all, plac-
environment.
ing it in a wider surrounding of related effects, then
“deducing” one from another by building a chain of
Experimenting. Faraday is most known as an experi-
experimental phenomena, or, as he said, “putting facts
menter. Indeed, those achievements that made him
closely together.” Sometimes this required framing new
famous in his time rely on experiments, be it electromag-
concepts, or transferring existing ones into a totally new
netic rotation (1821), the liquefaction of gases (1823), the
context, as in the case of magnetic curves.
discovery of benzene (1825), electromagnetic induction
Faraday had a laboratory assistant, the former
(1831), the identity of various electricities (1833), the
Sergeant Charles Anderson, but it seems that in his con-
laws of electrolysis (1834), the magneto-optical effect
siderations about the meaning and ordering of experimen-
(1845), or diamagnetism (1845–1846). Contrasting to
tal results, and the planning of further experiments, he
the older picture of Faraday’s experiments being guided by
worked essentially alone. When other scientists visited
speculative views on matter and force, new studies of his
him in the laboratory, he would show them his ready
experimental practice by David Gooding, Friedrich
results, but not discuss ongoing research—the same holds
Steinle, and Ryan D. Tweney have drawn quite a different
for his well-documented and extensive correspondence.
picture. The core of his experimental approach was never
individual, single experiments but always extended exper- Faraday’s experimental approach was intimately
imental series—a point that is easily eclipsed when focus- linked to his practice of record keeping. He probably put
ing on his prominent discoveries. But these discoveries are down notes right in the laboratory, but edited them in
only understandable as outcomes of those experimental clear writing afterward (typically on a daily basis), num-
series. The main experimental procedure was a systematic bered each entry for later reference, and eventually bound
2 NEW DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC BIOGRAPHY
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Faraday Faraday
these notes into books. In composing his papers for pub-
lication, he would often take directly the wording and the
figures of his notebook. As the number of experiments
increased greatly over the years, he started to work on
indices and superindices to enable later retrieval. And even N
in later years he would still come back to experiments A P B
made more than a decade earlier. Such a conscious dealing
with enormous amounts of experimental records was
extraordinary at his time; see, for example, the contrasting
case of Ampère.
Theorizing. Faraday’s success as an experimentalist has
Figure 1. To grasp the results of his numerous induction
long overshadowed his efforts and achievements in theo-
experiments (1831/32) in a law, Faraday used “magnetic
rizing and conceptualizing. But his work was at least as
curves” as a refererence frame. Despite his own success in
strongly focused on understanding and ordering experi-
formulating a law, the concept came to visibility only in the
mental outcomes as on obtaining new experimental 1860s when Maxwell gave those “lines of force” a mathematical
effects. His approach focused more on formulating laws form.
and on fundamental concepts than on searching for hid-
den entities that would provide causal explanations. More
than others, he was ready to question fundamental con- as a convenient tool to express the spatial distribution of
cepts, such as electric current, electric attraction, and mag- magnetic force. Rather than being an “embarrassment” for
netic polarity, and to propose new concepts, such as Faraday, as Leslie Pearce Williams suggests in the original
electromagnetic rotation as an elementary effect, magnetic DSBarticle, this peculiar status of lines of force lay at the
and electric curves (later to be renamed lines of force), spe- core of his approach. Faraday kept that cautious attitude
cific capacity, dia- and paramagnetism, and of course elec- for decades, even when conceiving the curves as movable
tric and magnetic fields. In some cases he consulted other (1832), introducing electric lines of force (1838), formu-
scholars (most notably William Whewell) for appropriate lating diamagnetic behavior in terms of lines of force
words in order to keep the new concepts as neutral as pos- (1848), or finally developing a general theory of magnet-
sible with respect to explanatory theories. Only when a ism in terms of lines of force (1850). Only in 1851, at a
firm experimental and conceptual foundation was stage when he oversaw a huge domain of electromagnetic
achieved, was he ready to put real effort into the question effects, did he drop his reluctance and state that there
of hidden causes, such as the theory of electrolysis or of probably was more to lines of force than just being descrip-
polarization. tive tools: their successful application comprised much
The concepts thus created were “empirically satu- wider realms than any other concept of electrodynamics.
rated,” in the sense that Faraday formed and developed
them with an ever-growing body of experimental results Religion. Throughout his life, and while living in the
in mind, for which they should enable a formulation of Royal Institution’s building, Faraday kept apart his profes-
regularities and laws. In face of new experimental evi- sional and private life. The latter was most intensely
dence, he was ready to a very high degree to revise and shaped by his adherence to the Sandemanian sect, a strict
refine those concepts again and again, with the result that religious group that comprised not more than four hun-
in the end they found a very precise formulation, though dred members in England and Scotland in his time. Fara-
not in mathematical language. That he was able to form day’s confession of faith in 1821 was certainly one of the
such unconventional concepts at all had to do with his most important moments of his life. Like all members of
noncommitment to any established school of physical that community, Faraday spent much time and effort with
thinking, and with his deep feeling of the responsibility to services, gatherings, and duties such as caring for the sick
fit his concepts to nature. At the same time, it was exactly or preaching, often outside London. His important social
this character of the concepts that made them appear connections were more or less completely located within
weird for most of his contemporaries, because they did the community and formed strong ties. It is indicative, for
not resonate with the established body of knowledge of example, that while he generally refused to write support
the period. letters for anyone for positions, he deviated from this rule
Ever since his first use of “magnetic curves” in 1831 in the case of Sandemanian brethren. His funeral, on his
for the induction law, he emphasized he was not claiming own wish, and despite his wide fame, took place only
physical reality of these curves, but rather was using them within a small circle of Sandemanians.
NEW DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC BIOGRAPHY 3
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Faraday Faraday
Both his personal faith and the Sandemanian com- A third aspect of Faraday’s impact has received less
munity life gave Faraday a considerable degree of personal attention. While Faraday never formulated anything like a
stability. Correspondingly, however, instabilities within methodology, his peculiar approach was quite visible and
the Sandemanian community (such as his temporary would eventually become subject of methodological con-
exclusion in 1844) affected him profoundly and made siderations. The growing insight into the inadequacy of
him existentially suffer, in sharp contrast to problems and the search for the “hidden levers and screws” of nature
lack of resonance in his scientific surroundings. Moreover, during the last decades of the nineteenth century was in
his religion provided him with a specific attitude toward part stimulated by the complex dispute of Weberian, Neu-
mannian, and Faraday-Maxwellian electrodynamics. A
researching nature. In his 1854 lecture “Mental Educa-
major exponent of that changing ideal of knowledge, Her-
tion,” he emphasized the importance of humility in the
mann von Helmholtz, explicitly attributed his own turn
face of God’s creation. The extraordinary degree to which
away from the search for hidden mechanisms to his read-
he kept his concepts and theoretical ideas open for revi-
ing of Faraday. Even in recent attempts to widen the
sion by further experience (dubbed “Negative capability”
understanding of experimental practice in general, Fara-
by Elspeth Crawford), and also his persistence in keeping
day figures as a prominent example and unique resource
his unconventional ideas, can well be understood as his
because of his peculiar productivity, the unique availabil-
own way of realizing that virtue.
ity of sources that enable insight into his everyday prac-
tice, and the specific experimental approach that does not
Impact. Faraday’s impact on research in electrodynamics
fit the standard view of experiment.
(and physics in general) was immense. From 1830 on, he
was the one to put challenges and create the “hot topics” in
SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY
electrodynamics for two and a half decades: rotation,
induction, specific capacity, magneto-optical effect, dia- The Royal Institution of Great Britain, the Royal Society, the
Guildhall Library, and the Institution of Engineering and
magnetism, and lines of force. The continuing series of
Technology keep much archival material (manuscripts, lecture
Faraday’s papers was translated into various languages on a
notes, and so forth), all of which has been microfilmed and
regular basis. However, the reception was split in a charac-
stored on compact disc, available from Microform Academic,
teristic way: While his experimental results were highly Wakefield, United Kingdom.
praised, his conceptual approach met with silence or criti-
cism. This had partly to do with his total lack of mathe- WORKS BY FARADAY
matical education in a period when physics became Faraday’s Diary: Being the Various Philosophical Notes of
strongly mathematized and partly with his uneasy way of Experimental Investigation Made by Michael Faraday during
the Years 1820–1862 and Bequeathed by Him to the Royal
presenting his results, switching between meticulous exper-
Institution of Great Britain. Edited by Thomas Martin.
imental descriptions and general considerations. The
London: G. Bell, 1932–1936.
largest obstacle, however, was the unconventional charac-
Experimental Researches in Electricity. New York: Dover, 1965.
ter of some of his new concepts. Wilhelm Weber, for exam- Originally published 1839–1855.
ple, in his 1845 Maassbestimmungen, mentioned Faraday as
Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics. London: Taylor
a gifted experimentalist and discoverer of the induction & Francis, 1991. Originally published in 1859.
effect, but found there was no law of induction. Obviously The Correspondence of Michael Faraday. 4 vols. Edited by Frank
he did not regard Faraday’s induction law of 1832 as some- A.J.L. James. London: Institution of Electrical Engineers,
thing to be considered seriously—it was formulated in 1991–. Complete edition, with excellent comments and
introduction.
terms of magnetic curves and hence probably too far from
Curiosity Perfectly Satisfyed: Faraday’s Travels in Europe
anything a physicist of the time could deal with.
1813–1815. Edited by Brian Bowers and Lenore Symons.
The second half of the century saw the development
IEE History of Technology Series, 16. London: Peter
of field-theory in mathematical form. It is important to Peregrinus, 1991. Faraday’s notebook of the “Continental
note that what James Clerk Maxwell set out to mathema- Tour.”
tize was not specific effects, domains, or laws, but the con- Michael Faraday’s “Chemical Notes, Hints, Suggestions and Objects
cept of lines of force, as he took it from Faraday. The of Pursuit” of 1822. Edited by Ryan D. Tweney and David
Gooding. IEE History of Technology Series, 17. London:
striking historical observation that Maxwell’s success in
Peter Peregrinus, 1991.
mathematizing the concept provided a comprehensive
theory of a vast range of electrodynamic effects, without
OTHER SOURCES
having discussed that variety of effects in detail, can be
Berman, Morris. Social Change and Scientific Organization: The
understood just by highlighting the “empirically satu-
Royal Institution, 1799–1844. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
rated” and highly precise character of Faraday’s concepts. Press, 1978.
4 NEW DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC BIOGRAPHY
