Table Of ContentNEUROIMAGING
COGNITIVE AND CLINICAL
NEUROSCIENCE
Edited by Peter Bright
NEUROIMAGING –
COGNITIVE AND CLINICAL
NEUROSCIENCE
Edited by Peter Bright
Neuroimaging – Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience
Edited by Peter Bright
Published by InTech
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Copyright © 2012 InTech
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First published May, 2012
Printed in Croatia
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Neuroimaging – Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience, Edited by Peter Bright
p. cm.
ISBN 978-953-51-0606-7
Contents
Preface IX
Chapter 1 Cytoarchitectonics of the Human Cerebral Cortex:
The 1926 Presentation by Georg N. Koskinas
(1885–1975) to the Athens Medical Society 1
Lazaros C. Triarhou
Chapter 2 Images of the Cognitive Brain Across Age and Culture 17
Joshua Goh and Chih-Mao Huang
Chapter 3 Neuroimaging of Single Cases:
Benefits and Pitfalls 47
James Danckert and Seyed M. Mirsattarri
Chapter 4 Functional and Structural Magnetic Resonance
Imaging of Human Language:
A Review 69
Manuel Martín-Loeches and Pilar Casado
Chapter 5 Neuro-Anatomical Overlap Between Language and
Memory Functions in the Human Brain 95
Satoru Yokoyama
Chapter 6 Neuronal Networks Observed with Resting State
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in
Clinical Populations 109
Gioacchino Tedeschi and Fabrizio Esposito
Chapter 7 Resting State Blood Flow and Glucose Metabolism in
Psychiatric Disorders 129
Nobuhisa Kanahara, Eiji Shimizu,
Yoshimoto Sekine and Masaomi Iyo
Chapter 8 The Memory, Cognitive and Psychological Functions of Sleep:
Update from Electroencephalographic and
Neuroimaging Studies 155
Roumen Kirov and Serge Brand
VI Contents
Chapter 9 Neuroimaging and Outcome Assessment in
Vegetative and Minimally Conscious State 181
Silvia Marino, Rosella Ciurleo, Annalisa Baglieri,
Francesco Corallo, Rosaria De Luca, Simona De Salvo,
Silvia Guerrera, Francesca Timpano,
Placido Bramanti and Nicola De Stefano
Chapter 10 Functional and Structural MRI Studies on Impulsiveness:
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactive Disorder and
Borderline Personality Disorders 205
Trevor Archer and Peter Bright
Chapter 11 MRI Techniques to Evaluate Exercise Impact on
the Aging Human Brain 229
Bonita L. Marks and Laurence M. Katz
Chapter 12 Human Oscillatory EEG Activities Representing
Working Memory Capacity 249
Masahiro Kawasaki
Chapter 13 Neuroimaging Data in Bipolar Disorder:
An Updated View 263
Bernardo Dell’Osso, Cristina Dobrea,
Maria Carlotta Palazzo, Laura Cremaschi,
Chiara Arici, Beatrice Benatti and A. Carlo Altamura
Chapter 14 Reinforcement Learning, High-Level Cognition, and
the Human Brain 283
Massimo Silvetti and Tom Verguts
Chapter 15 What Does Cerebral Oxygenation Tell Us
About Central Motor Output? 297
Nicolas Bourdillon and Stéphane Perrey
Chapter 16 Intermanual and Intermodal Transfer in Human Newborns:
Neonatal Behavioral Evidence and
Neurocognitive Approach 319
Arlette Streri and Edouard Gentaz
Chapter 17 Somatosensory Stimulation in Functional Neuroimaging:
A Review 333
S.M. Golaszewski, M. Seidl, M. Christova, E. Gallasch, A.B. Kunz,
R. Nardone, E. Trinka and F. Gerstenbrand
Chapter 18 Neuroimaging Studies in Carbon Monoxide
Intoxication 353
Ya-Ting Chang, Wen-Neng Chang, Shu-Hua Huang,
Chun-Chung Lui, Chen-Chang Lee,
Nai-Ching Chen and Chiung-Chih Chang
Contents VII
Chapter 19 Graphical Models of Functional MRI Data for
Assessing Brain Connectivity 375
Junning Li, Z. JaneWang and Martin J. McKeown
Chapter 20 Event-Related Potential Studies of Cognitive and
Social Neuroscience 397
Agustin Ibanez, Phil Baker and Alvaro Moya
Chapter 21 Neuroimaging Outcomes of Brain Training Trials 417
Chao Suo and Michael J. Valenzuela
Chapter 22 EEG-Biofeedback as a Tool to Modulate Arousal:
Trends and Perspectives for
Treatment of ADHD and Insomnia 431
B. Alexander Diaz, Lizeth H. Sloot,
Huibert D. Mansvelder and Klaus Linkenkaer-Hansen
Chapter 23 Deconstructing Central Pain with Psychophysical and
Neuroimaging Studies 451
J.J. Cheng, D.S. Veldhuijzen, J.D. Greenspan and F.A. Lenz
Preface
The rate of technological progress is encouraging increasingly sophisticated lines of
enquiry in cognitive neuroscience and shows no sign of slowing down in the
foreseeable future. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that even the strongest advocates of the
cognitive neuroscience approach would maintain that advances in cognitive theory
have kept in step with methods-based developments. There are several candidate
reasons for the failure of neuroimaging studies to convincingly resolve many of the
most important theoretical debates in the literature. For example, a significant
proportion of published functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies are not
well grounded in cognitive theory, and this represents a step away from the traditional
approach in experimental psychology of methodically and systematically building on
(or chipping away at) existing theoretical models using tried and tested methods.
Unless the experimental study design is set up within a clearly defined theoretical
framework, any inferences that are drawn are unlikely to be accepted as anything
other than speculative. A second, more fundamental issue is whether neuroimaging
data alone can address how cognitive functions operate (far more interesting to the
cognitive scientist than establishing the neuroanatomical coordinates of a given
function – the where question).
The classic neuropsychological tradition of comparing neurologically impaired and
healthy populations shares some of the same challenges associated with neuroimaging
research (such as incorporation of individual differences in brain structure and
function, attribution of specific vs general functions to a given brain region, and the
questionable assumption that the shared components operating in two tasks under
comparison recruit the same neural architecture. However, a further disadvantage of
functional neuroimaging relative to the neuropsychological approach is that it is a
correlational method for inferring regional brain involvement in a given task – and
interpretation of signal should always reflect this fact. Spatial resolution and
sensitivity is improving with the commercial availability of ultra-high field human
scanners, but a single voxel (the smallest unit of measurement) still corresponds to
many thousands of individual neurons. Haemodynamic response to input is slow (in
the order of seconds) and the relationship between this function and neural activity
remains incompletely understood. Furthermore, choice of image preprocessing
parameters can appear somewhat arbitrary and an obvious rationale for selection of
statistical thresholds, correction for multiple corrections, etc. at the analysis stage can
X Preface
likewise be lacking in some studies. Therefore, to advance our knowledge about the
neural bases of cognition, rigorous methodological control, well-developed theory
with testable predictions, and inferences drawn on the basis of a range of methods is
likely to be required.
Triarhou (Chapter 1) provides a translation of Georg Koskinas’ 1926 presentation to
the Athens Medical Society in which the neuropsychiatrist described 107
cytoarchitectonically defined cortical areas (plus 60 “transition” areas) in the human
brain. In comparison to Brodmann’s (1909) universally recognised system (in which 44
cortical areas are defined), the von Economo and Koskinas system (published as an
atlas and textbook in 1925) provided a fourfold increase in cortical specification. The
author provides a compelling argument for more widespread adoption of von
Economo and Koskinas’ detailed criteria (commonly used in clinical neuroscience) in
neuroimaging studies of human cognition.
Heterogeneity in brain structure and function across individuals is an important issue
in neuroimaging research. Although attempts are made to manage such differences
during stages of preprocessing and statistical analyses of datasets (as well as during
the participant selection process), there can be a tendency to neglect the importance of
individual differences due to the importance in the literature of identifying
commonalities in the functioning of our brains. For example, it is quite common in
fMRI studies to find participants who have relatively “silent” brains relative to others
undertaking the same cognitive task. Age is a well recognised factor affecting brain
structure and function, but the importance of cultural differences is relatively poorly
understood. Goh and Huang (Chapter 2) present neuroimaging findings associated
with age and cultural experience and also consider their interaction. Interestingly,
research appears to suggest that culture-specific functional effects present in early
adulthood are robust and remain in place despite subsequent age-related
neurobiological change. Such observations also suggest that ageing effects in the brain
may, in part, be contingent upon the nature of external experiences – raising clinical
implications for modulating or offsetting neurocognitive changes associated with
increasing age.
Danckert and Mirsattari (Chapter 3) consider the viability of fMRI studies of single
neurological cases for furthering our understanding of brain-behaviour
relationships. With careful attention to methodological issues, the authors present a
strong argument for the single case approach (for both clinical and cognitive
neuroscience purposes) in which comprehensive neuropsychological assessment
and fMRI are employed and the results interpreted in the context of large-scale
normative structural and functional MRI data. Chapter 4 (Martín-Loeches & Casado)
provides a useful review of recent research on the neural correlates of human
language and Chapter 5 (Yokoyama) considers whether (and the extent to which)
brain regions responsible for core language processes can be dissociated from those
responsible for more general cognitive processes associated with working memory
and central executive function.
Preface XI
Tedeschi and Esposito (Chapter 6) present an excellent consideration of the utility of
measuring resting state networks (RSNs) in clinical populations using fMRI. Some
authors have questioned whether systematic neuroimaging analysis of the resting
state represents an appropriate context for advancing cognitive theory.
Nevertheless, this review presents a highly compelling argument for studying RSNs
(particularly when combined with MRI tractography) in order to enhance
understanding of pathological mechanisms in a range of neurological conditions.
Kanahara et al. (Chapter 7) focus their comprehensive review on single-photon
emission computed tomography (SPECT) and photon emission tomography (PET)
studies of resting state blood flow and metabolism in a range of psychiatric
conditions including schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and
obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Sleep deprivation is associated with a wide range of neurocognitive effects, but
attention and other aspects of executive function appear particularly vulnerable. Kirov
and Brand (Chapter 8) review evidence for the role of sleep in the regulation of
cognitive functions, with particular focus on neuroimaging investigations. The
distinction between vegetative state (VS) and minimally conscious state (MCS) is
clearly expressed in the clinical literature. The former refers to a state of “wakeful
unawareness” in which patients are awake, can open their eyes and produce basic
orienting responses, but have a total loss of conscious awareness. MCS differs to the
extent that patients with this diagnosis are able to produce cognitively mediated
behavioural responses. From a clinical perspective however, the distinction can be
very difficult and a number of recent neuroimaging studies have provided indirect
evidence that some VS patients have been able to communicate answers to orally
presented questions. This rather disturbing finding that such patients may be more
aware than the clinicians (or family members) may realise is of profound clinical
importance given the very different prognosis and treatments indicated in the two
conditions. Marino et al. (Chapter 9) review the role of neuroimaging in improving our
understanding of coma, VS and MCS while recognising the continuing importance of
comprehensive standardised clinical assessment.
Impulsive behavior is a major component of several neuropsychiatric disorders
including schizophrenia, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), substance
abuse, bipolar disorder, and borderline and antisocial personality disorders. The
temporal, motor and reward related aspects of impulsiveness and decision-making are
exemplified by the impulsive behaviors typically evident in ADHD and borderline
personality disorder (BPD), with or without comorbidity. Archer and Bright (Chapter
10) consider the role of structural and functional neuroimaging for furthering our
understanding of the cause and development of impulsivity in these conditions.
Marks and Katz (Chapter 11) carefully evaluate the potential role of MRI for
establishing the nature of the relationship between exercise and the integrity (both
physiological and cognitive) of the brain. The question of whether (and the extent to
which) exercise can offset age-related cognitive decline is one which has attracted a
